Текст для экономистов

       HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 

     "Motivation: Reward system and the role of compensation" 

The design and management of reward systems present the general manager with one of the most

difficult HRM tasks. This HRM policy area contains the greatest contradictions between the promise

of theory and the reality of implementation. Consequently, organizations sometimes go through cycles

of innovation and hope as reward systems are developed, followed by disillusionment as these reward

systems fail to deliver.  

Rewards and employee satisfaction

Gaining an employee's satisfaction with the rewards given is not a simple matter. Rather, it is a function

of several factors that organizations must learn to manage:  

1. The individual's satisfaction with rewards is, in part, related to what is expected and how much is

received. Feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction arise when individuals compare their input - job

skills, education, effort, and performance - to output - the mix of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards they

receive.  

2. Employee satisfaction is also affected by comparisons with other people in similar jobs and

organizations. In effect, employees compare their own input/output ratio with that of others. People

vary considerably in how they weigh various inputs in that comparison. They tend to weigh their strong

points more heavily, such as certain skills or a recent incident of effective performance. Individuals

also tend to overrate their own performance compared with the rating they receive from their

supervisors. The problem of unrealistic self-rating exists partly because supervisors in most

organizations do not communicate a candid evaluation of their subordinates' performance to them.

Such candid communication to subordinates, unless done skillfully, seriously risks damaging their

self-esteem. The bigger dilemma, however, is that failure by managers to communicate a candid

appraisal of performance makes it difficult for employees to develop a realistic view of their own

performance, thus increasing the possibility of dissatisfaction with the pay they are receiving.  

3. Employees often misperceive the rewards of others; their misperception can cause the employees

to become dissatisfied. Evidence shows that individuals tend to overestimate the pay of fellow

workers doing similar jobs and to underestimate their performance (a defense of self-esteem-building

mechanism). Misperceptions of the performance and rewards of others also occur because

organizations do not generally make available accurate information about the salary or performance of

others.  

4. Finally, overall satisfaction results from a mix of rewards rather than from any single reward. The

evidence suggests that intrinsic rewards and extrinsic rewards are both important and that they cannot

be directly substituted for each other. Employees who are paid well for repetitious, boring work will

be dissatisfied with the lack of intrinsic rewards, just as employees paid poorly for interesting,

challenging work may be dissatisfied with extrinsic rewards.  

Rewards and motivation  

From the organization's point of view, rewards are intended to motivate certain behaviors. But under

what conditions will rewards actually motivate employees? To be useful, rewards must be seen as

timely and tied to effective performance.

One theory suggests that the following conditions are necessary for employee motivation. 

1. Employees must believe effective performance (or certain specified behavior) will lead to certain

rewards. For example, attaining certain results will lead to a bonus or approval from others.  

2. Employees must feel that the rewards offered are attractive. Some employees may desire

promotions because they seek power, but others may want a fringe benefit, such as a pension,

because they are older and want retirement security.  

3. Employees must believe a certain level of individual effort will lead to achieving the corporation's

standards of performance.  

As indicated, motivation to exert effort is triggered by the prospect of desired rewards: money,

recognition, promotion, and so forth. If effort leads to performance and performance leads to desired

rewards, the employee is satisfied and motivated to perform again.

As mentioned above, rewards fall into two categories: extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards come

from the organization as money, perquisites, or promotions or from supervisors and coworkers as

recognition. Intrinsic rewards accrue from performing the task itself, and may include the satisfaction

of accomplishment or a sense of influence. The process of work and the individual's response to it

provide the intrinsic rewards. But the organization seeking to increase intrinsic rewards must provide a

work environment that allows these satisfactions to occur; therefore, more organizations are

redesigning work and delegating responsibility to enhance employee involvement.  

Equity and participation   

The ability of a reward system both to motivate and to satisfy depends on who influences and/or

controls the system's design and implementation. Even though considerable evidence suggests that

participation in decision making can lead to greater acceptance of decisions, participation in the design

and administration of reward systems is rare. Such participation is time-consuming.

Perhaps, a greater roadblock is that pay has been of the last strongholds of managerial prerogatives.

Concerned about employee self-interest and compensation costs, corporations do not typically allow

employees to participate in pay-system design or decisions. Thus, it is not possible to test thoroughly

the effects of widespread participation on acceptance of and trust in reward system.  

Compensation systems: the dilemmas of practice  

A body of experience, research and theory has been developed about how money satisfies and

motivates employees. Virtually every study on the importance of pay compared with other potential

rewards has shown that pay is important. It consistently ranks among the top five rewards. The

importance of pay and other rewards, however, is affected by many factors. Money, for example, is

likely to be viewed differently at various points in one's career, because the need for money versus

other rewards (status, growth, security, and so forth) changes at each stage. National culture is

another important factor. American managers and employees apparently emphasize pay for individual

performance more than do their European or Japanese counterparts. European and Japanese

companies, however, rely more on slow promotions and seniority as well as some degree of

employment security. Even within a single culture, shifting national forces may alter people's needs for

money versus other rewards. 

Companies have developed various compensation systems and practices to achieve pay satisfaction

and motivation. In manufacturing firms, payroll costs can run as high as 40% of sales revenues,

whereas in service organizations payroll costs can top 70%. General managers, therefore, take an

understandable interest in payroll costs and how this money is spent.  

The traditional view of managers and compensation specialists is that if the right system can be

developed, it will solve most problems. This is not a plausible assumption, because, there is no one

right answer or objective solution to what or how someone should be paid. What people will accept,

be motivated by, or perceive as fair is highly subjective. Pay is a matter of perceptions and values that

often generate conflict.  

Management's influence on attitudes toward money 

Many organizations are caught up in a vicious cycle that they partly create. Firms often emphasize

compensation levels and a belief in individual pay for performance in their recruitment and internal

communications. This is likely to attract people with high needs for money as well as to heighten that

need in those already employed. Thus, the meaning employees attach to money is partly shaped by

management's views. If merit increases, bonuses, stock options, and perquisites are held out as valued

symbols of recognition and success, employees will come to see them in this light even more than they

might have perceived them at first. Having heightened money's importance as a reward, management

must then respond to employees who may demand more money or better pay-for-performance

systems.  

Firms must establish a philosophy about rewards and the role of pay in the mix of rewards. Without

such a philosophy, the compensation practices that happen to be in place, for the reasons already

stated, will continue to shape employees' satisfactions, and those expectations will sustain the existing

practices. If money has been emphasized as an important symbol of success, that emphasis will

continue even though a compensation system with a slightly different emphasis might have equal

motivational value with fewer administrative problems and perhaps even lower cost. Money is

important, but its degree of importance is influenced by the type of compensation system and

philosophy that management adopts.  

Pay for performance  

Some reasons why organizations pay their employees for performance are as follows:

under the right conditions, a pay-for-performance system can motivate desired behavior. 

a pay-for-performance system can help attract and keep achievement-oriented individuals.  

a pay-for-performance system can help to retain good performers while discouraging the poor

performers.  

In the US, at least, many employees, both managers and workers, prefer a pay-for-performance

system, although white-collar workers are significantly more supportive of the notion than blue-collar

workers.   

But there is a gap, and the evidence indicates a wide gap, between the desire to devise a

pay-for-performance system and the ability to make such a system work.  

The most important distinction among various pay-for-performance systems is the level of aggregation

at which performance is defined - individual, group, and organizationwide. Several

pay-for-performance systems are summarized in the exhibit that follows.  

Individual performance  Group 

performance     Organizationwide performance   

Merit system 

Piece rate 

Executive bonus             

Productivity incentive 

Cost effectiveness          

Profit sharing 

Productivity-sharing            

Historically, pay for performance has meant pay for individual performance. Piece-rate incentive

systems for production employees and merit salary increases or bonus plans for salaried employees

have been the dominant means of paying for performance. In the last decade, piece-rate incentive

systems have dramatically declined because managers have discovered that such systems result in

dysfunctional behavior, such as low cooperation, artificial limits on production and resistance to

changing standards. Similarly, more questions are being asked about individual bonus plans for

executives as top managers discovered their negative effects.  

Meanwhile, organizationwide incentive systems are becoming more popular, particularly because

managers are finding that they foster cooperation, which leads to productivity and innovation. To

succeed, however, these plans require certain conditions. A review of the key considerations for

designing a pay-for-performance plan and a discussion of the problems that arise when these

considerations are not observed follow.  

Individual pay for performance. The design of an individual pay-for performance system requires an

analysis of the task. Does the individual have control over the performance (result) that is to be

measured? Is there a significant effort-to-performance relationship? For motivational reasons already

discussed such a relationship must exist. Unfortunately, many individual bonus, commission, or

piece-rate incentive plans fall short in meeting this requirement. An individual may not have control

over a performance result, such as sales or profit, because that result is affected by economic cycles

or competitive forces beyond his or her control. Indeed, there are few outcomes in complex

organizations that are not dependent on other functions or individuals, fewer still that are not subject to

external factors.  

Choosing an appropriate measure of performance on which to base pay is a related problem incurred

by individual bonus plans. For reasons discussed earlier, effectiveness on a job can include many

facets not captured by cost, units produced, or sales revenues. Failure to include all activities that are

important for effectiveness can lead to negative consequences. For example, sales personnel who

receive a bonus for sales volume may push unneeded products, thus damaging long-term customer

relations, or they may push an unprofitable mix of products just to increase volume. These same

salespeople may also take orders and make commitments that cannot be met by manufacturing.

Instead, why not hold salespeople responsible for profits, a more inclusive measure of performance?

The obvious problem with this measure is that sales personnel do not have control over profits.  

These dilemmas constantly encountered and have led to the use of more subjective but inclusive

behavioral measures of performance. Why not observe if the salesperson or executive is performing

all aspects of the job well? More merit salary increases are based on subjective judgments and so are

some individual bonus plans. Subjective evaluation systems though they can be all-inclusive if based

on a thorough analysis of the job, require deep trust in management, good manager-subordinate

relations, and effective interpersonal skills. Unfortunately, these conditions are not fully met in many

situations, though they can be developed if judged to be sufficiently important.   

Group and organizationwide pay plans. Organizational effectiveness depends on employee

cooperation in most instances. An organization may elect to tie pay, or at least some portion of pay,

indirectly to individual performance. Seeking to foster team-work, a company may tie an incentive to

some measure of group performance, or it may offer some type of profits or productivity-sharing plan

for the whole plant or company.   

Gains-sharing plans have been used for years in many varieties. The real power of a gains-sharing plan

comes when it is supported by a climate of participation. Various structures, systems, and processes

involve employees in decisions that improve the organization's performance and result in a bonus

throughout the organization.   

Russian management's approach to motivation. 

Nowadays, top managers at Russian companies don't pay much attention to the employee motivation.