Medieval english written records

     Chaucer's best-known work, The Canterbury Tales, is not of course a guide to the spoken language of the time; it is a variety of the written language which has been carefully crafted. It is uses a regular metrical structure and rhyme scheme-itself a departure from the free rhythms and the alliteration of a much earlier poetry. It contains many variations in word order, dictated by the demands of the prosody. There are also frequent literary allusions and turns of a phrase which make the text difficult to follow. What has impressed readers so much is that, despite the constraints, Chaucer has managed to capture vividly the intriguing characters of the speakers, and to reflect naturally the colloquial features of their speech. In no other author, is there better support for the view that there is an underlying correspondence between the natural rhythm of English poetry and that of English everyday conversation [16: 38].

     1.2.2. Principal Middle English written records

               The literature written I England during the Middle English period reflects fairly accurately the changes fortunes of English. During the time that French was the language best understood by the upper classes, the books they read or listened to were French. The rewards of patronage were seldom to be expected by those who wrote in English; with them we must look for other incentives for writing. Such incentives were most often found among members of the religious body, interested in promoting right living and in the care of souls.  Accordingly, the literature in English that has come down to us from this period is almost exclusively religious or admonitory.

    The Ancrene Riwle, the Ormulum, a series of paraphrases and interpretations of Gospel passages, and a group of saint's lives and short homiletic pieces showing the survival of an Old English literary tradition in the southwest are the principal works of this class. The two outstanding exceptions are Layamon's “Brut” based largely on Wace, and the astonishing debate between The Owl and the Nightingale, a long poem in which two birds exchange recriminations in the liveliest fashion. There was certainly a body of popular literature that circulated orally among the people, just as at a later date in the English and Scottish popular ballads did, but such literature has left slight traces in this period. The hundred years from 1150 to 1250 have been justly called the Period of religious Record [16: 38].

     The separation of the English nobility from France by about 1250 and the spread of English among the upper class is manifested in the next hundred years of English literature. Types of polite literature that had hitherto had appeared in French now appear in English. Of these types most popular was the romance. Only one English romance exists from an earlier date than 1250, but from this time translations and adaptations from French begin to be made, and in the course of the fourteen century their number become quite large. The period of 1250-1350 is a period of Religious and secular literature of the English language. The general adoption of English by all classes, which had taken place by the latter half of the fourteenth century, gave rise to a body of literature that represents the high point in English literary achievement in the Middle Ages. The period from 1350 to 1400 has been called the Period of Great Individual Writers. The chief name is that of Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400), the greatest English poet before Shakespeare. Not to mention his delightful minor poems, he is the author of a long narrative poem telling the story of the unhappy love of Troilus and Criseyde and, most famous of his works, the Canterbury Tales, which, besides giving us in the general prologue a matchless portrait gallery of contemporary types, constitutes in the variety of the tales a veritable anthology of medieval literature. To this period belongs William Langland, the reputed author of a long social allegory. Piers Plowman (1362-1387); John Wycliffe (d. 1384), putative translator of the Bible and author of a large and influential body of controversial prose; and the unknown poet who wrote not only the finest of the Middle English romances. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, but three allegorical and religious poems of great beauty, including Pearl. Any one of these men would have made the later fourteenth century an outstanding period in Middle English literature. Together they constitute a striking proof of the secure position the English language had attained.

     The fifteenth century is sometimes known as the Imitative Period because so much of the poetry then written was written in emulation of Chaucer. It is also spoken of as a Transition Period, because it covers a large part of the interval between the age of Chaucer and the age of Shakespeare period has been unjustly neglected. Hawes are not negligible, though admittedly overshadowed by some of their great predecessors, and at the end of the century we have the prose of Malory and Caxton. In the north the Scottish Chaucerians, particularly Henryson, Dunbar, Gawin Douglas, and Lindsay, produced significant work. These authors carry on the tradition of English as a literary medium into the Renaissance. Thus, Middle English literature follows and throws interesting light on the fortunes of the English language [14: 151-152]. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

PART 2. CONCEPTUAL REPRESENTATION OF THE MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE

     2.1. Knighthood and Chivalry as a culturally dominant element in the Middle English literature

     After the Norman Conquest when invaders created a new sub-ethnic system in the ethnic system of the subjugated folk and their contacts with English people passed on from the interethnic to the intra-ethnic level, it became obvious that the categorization of a newly acquired interethnic contact's experience gave birth to a new prototype of English ethno-cultural tradition. The basic concept of this very tradition arose in the Anglo-Saxon Christian dominant with the infused Anglo-Norman subethnic values. The latter favoured greatly the inclusion of England to the west European Christian super-ethnic system. The culture of Chivalry that had become a dominant of the system had inherently French origin which also made for the depth of the French ethno-cultural substratum in English cultural tradition. It is well known that the basic motives of chivalrous culture were service, faithfulness and war. All this was for the sake of the Lord, God and Lady. War was an aim and ordinary end of knight's life. A Knight enjoyed the battles being brave and brutal as a lion though in peace time he devoted his time to the service to a lady. The military system in England was organized thereby that not only knights but the population had to on one way or another participate in a war. Consequently, again the war motive was dominant.

     John Sanders perceived in the Chivalrous culture Anglo-Saxon roots. According to his point of view the culture sprung up in the XI century naturally from ancient sets of values. Inside the developing feudal institutions were establishing relations that naturally continued already existing traditions. The being exploited institution of Knighthood was under great influence of religion and Church. The Unity of Christian world was consolidating exactly in this period in other words it was the process of forming west European super-ethnic system. One can feel the tendency toward the extension of super-ethnic room by means of crusades and missionary activities.                     

     The legend about the King Arthur was firstly told in the poem “Brut” by Layamon. The kings himself as well as the knights from his suite were prototypical ideal models of behavior of the epoch becoming the symbols of Chivalrous England. The appearance of the Arthur is considered to be connected with Celtic myth-poetic tradition first of all due to the fact that he had a real historic prototype of Celtic origin. [24: 90-100] .Just as the invaders travelled all over the subjugated country and extended their territories as much as it was possible they also subjected to the examination the literature of their new compatriots. The Normans didn't take much from Saxon culture mainly because they didn't comprehend its spirit. It was Celtic culture that was the center of their attention as its spirit suited to their own perfectly. The king Author became Norman's passion. At the moment of the invasion there were a considerable number of legends about Celtic heroes, although many of them were not necessarily connected with Arthur soon they gradually grouped around him [10: 90-95].    

     As it was mentioned above the basic values cementing the dominant ethno-cultural concept were service and faithfulness. Consequently the negative motive of violation of loyalty oath, treason swikedome became the main theme of many works of literature dating back to that time including Layamon's “Brut” in the part where the events of King Arthur life were described.

     2.2. The idea of chivalry in “Sir Gawain and Green Knight”

     The world of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is governed by well-defined codes of behavior. The code of chivalry, in particular, shapes the values and actions of Sir Gawain and other characters in the poem.

     The image of gallant and noble knights galloping on their mighty steeds to perilous battles has been a longtime icon in numerous fairytales and folklore. This idea of knighthood is especially portrayed and described in detail throughout Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Knights, more specifically, of the Round Table, are depicted as the heroic, noble, almost god-like protectors of Camelot. Ardent followers of Christ, they are perceived as infinitely powerful in times of combat, yet infinitely compassionate and honorable in times of peace. The Endless Knot, a symbolic emblem of knighthood, dictates “The fifth five that was used, as I find, by this knight was free-giving and friendliness first before all, and chastity and chivalry ever changeless and straight, and piety surpassing all point: these perfect five were hasped upon him harder than on any man else.” (38). Sir Gawain, though the weakest of the King Arthur's Knights of the Round Table, proves himself as an ideal knight through fulfilling the standards of knighthood described in Sir Gawain and the green Knight.………………………………………………………………  
       Part of a knight's duty was to defend and love the Church and to have complete trust in God. The Knights of the Round Table were all firm believers in Christ, taking part in “ …[a] feast [that] was unfailing full fifteen days” during the Christmas season, thus implying how religiously vigorous they were. Sir Gawain is highly religious, calling upon God's grace and power to protect him in times of peril, even having “on the inner side of his shield [Mary's] image depainted, that when he cast his eyes thither his courage never failed.” (39). Before entering the field to the Green Chapel, Sir Gawain also proved his faith in God by entrusting that He would protect him when the Green Knight repays the blow, praying that “By God on high I will neither grieve nor groan. With God's will I comply. 
Sir Gawain's character also proves that he is morally strict in keeping his honorable reputation as a Knight of the Round Table. For example, when Bertilak's beautiful wife tempts Sir Gawain, although he knew he would die in a few days time, he never fell into her manipulative seduction scheme. No matter how persistent “the lady demeaned her as one that loved him much”, Sir Gawain always “fenced with her featly, ever flawless in manner.”(58). This sends a powerful message to the reader about Sir Gawain's morality as a person, being able to resist the very temptation that had brought so many other great men to their knees.  
The Knights of the Round Table were also expected to be the gallant, zealous defenders of Camelot. Sir Gawain's perseverance and bravery definitely resembles that of an ideal knight. During his long journey, Sir Gawain “found a foe before him, save at few for a wonder; and so foul were they and fell that fight he must needs” and thus conquering each and every one of the beasts that challenges him (41). The knight was also stunningly brave when he went to receive his repayment from the Green Knight. Even though his guide warned him of his nonexistent chances of surviving, Sir Gawain nevertheless presses onwards, replying that “…if I here departed fain in fear now to flee, in the fashion thou speakest, I should a knight coward be, I could not be excused. Noy, I'll fare to the Chapel, whatever chance may befall…” (85). Sir Gawain's unwavering bravery further justifies his rightful title as an ideal knight.……………………………………………………...  
The use of colors reflects his noble position as the protector of Camelot and King Arthur, as Sir Gawain is equipped with armor in the regal color of red, which symbolizes royalty. The ideal knight was also expected to serve the royal family, and to protect the king in times of need, as Sir Gawain had put it, “I find it unfitting…you yourself be desirous to accept it in person, while many bold men abRout you on bench are seated.”(29). One could not help but notice Sir Gawain's show of selflessness when he offers to sacrifice his life for King Arthur's even when none of the other elite knights would dare to do so. The knight's “free-giving” nature could also be observed when Bertilak's offers him a beautiful ring that “was worth wealth beyond measure.” (75). Sir Gawain promptly refuses the offer, arguing that he had nothing to offer in return. When he promises to hide the green girdle that the lady presses upon him, it was a mistake that was not committed for his own interests, but rather one to protect another's reputation. This selflessness reflects Sir Gawain's loyalty to his duty as a knight to protect those who are less superior and to serve the weak.……………………………………… 
Through living up to the expected virtues of knighthood such as chastity, selflessness, bravery, and piety, Sir Gawain proves himself time and time again his worthiness to be recognized as the ideal knight. Each time the knight faces a different challenge or trial, his consequent decisions reveal a little about his character. It is nearly impossible to compare the virtues and criterion of the ideal knight to Sir Gawain's actions and not recognize the stunning. As Sir Gawain and the Green Knight closes to an end, the reader is left with the impression that Sir Gawain had indeed fulfilled his duties as the ideal knight. [27]

     2.2.2 The concept of Courtly love in the Middle English epoch

     As it was mentioned above in ancient epic romances the idea of love and service to a lady were shadowed and did not play any important role. Contrary to this epoch in medieval literature a woman became a center of attention; all heroic deeds were done only for the sake of winning her heart. The poets in their turn were inspired by entirely new motives i.e the idea of courtly love [4:104-105].

     The idea of courtesy was tightly connected with the knight culture.   The phrase “courtly love” refers to a set of ideas about love that greatly influenced the literature and culture of the Middle Ages. In the 11^th century, poets throughout Europe promoted the notions that true love only exists outside of marriage; that true love may be idealized and spiritual, and may exist without ever being married; and that a man becomes the servant of the lady he loves. This idea is extended to that love is a torment or a disease, and when a man is in love he cannot sleep or eat; therefore, he undergoes physical changes and sometimes to the point of becoming unrecognizable. Although very few people's lives resembled the courtly love ideal, these themes and motifs were extremely popular and widespread in Medieval and Renaissance literature and culture. They were particularly popular in the literature and culture that were part of royal and noble courts.

     In theory "courtly love" has been seen as the other side of the coin of antifeminism. Scholars have used the term to designate a set of literary conventions that supposedly idealizes women and makes them into objects of worship. The lady is wooed, usually at a distance, by a knight who fights in her honor, calls himself her "servant," and suffers insomnia, anorexia, pallor, chills and fever, and other symptoms that, he insists, will be his death if he does not obtain her "mercy." (Ex. St. George, the Redcross Knight, is Una's protector, her knight. Sir Philip Sidney's lyrics is based on courtly love.) The relationship between the knight and the lady is an inversion of the relationship between lord and vassal under feudalism. Because aristocratic women were married off for rank and property, and husbands enjoyed total authority over their wives, it has been argued that courtly love was incompatible with marriage and thus necessarily clandestine, although in Chaucer's "Knight's Tale" and "Franklin's Tale" courtly suitors woo and marry their ladies. Whether courtly love had any bearing on actual social custom in the Middle Ages is a vexed question, but one may safely assume that the literature reflects a new deference toward "ladies" that still governs much of our social behavior [27:13-16].

     2.2.3. The idea of piety and development of a religious dominant

     Parallel to the chivalrous dominant another ethno-cultural majorant that considerably influenced the literature was developing. Christianity with its ideas about the perishable nature of earthly blessings and riches offering an eternal bliss in heaven displaced the accent from the materialized symbols of the military epoch to the spirituality. It is noteworthy that through the suffering and redemption even a rejected looser could find a consolation in Christian idea. In whole, relations between a human and community moved on to a new footing.  By putting in the forefront individual salvation, freedom of will Christianity raised the value of human's personality put in direct relation with God. Christianity did change the ethno-cultural dominant of the Anglo-Saxon giving them motivation for reappraisal of already established models of behavior in line with the new imperatives. All this prepared the ground for the forming of young and unique Anglo-Saxon ethnic system [3: 208].

     With Christianization England became a significant part of the western Christian super-ethnic system. It promoted literacy, brought a substantial body of Latin literature to England, and inspired Anglo-Saxon poets to write on Christian subjects. The birth of vernacular poetry is associated with the name of Caedmon. His famous Hymn to God the creator is an illustration of how the content and form of old Germanic heroic lay of praise was transferred to religious poetry.

     As far as medieval literature is concerned the relation between God and human beings is one of the main points. The scene of people's praying or pleading appears every now and then, no matter to the God or even to some other people who own power.  Traditionally, whenever people meet obstacles or need helps, they turn to God and reverentially pray for fulfillment of their wishes with their piety and respect in return.  “Knight's tale” is not an exception. Before the public fight in the arena, Palamon and Arcita go praying in the shrines of Venus and Mars respectively and both swear to be the most pious followers if they succeed, one in winning Emily and the other in having the battle's victory. Beside these two warriors' praying, Emily, treated as the prize in the battle, also shows up in the temple of Diana, the goddess of Chastity, hoping for keeping her virginity and chastity earlier the day of fight. These three's very alike action of praying in the shrines clearly reveals people's tendency of praying to gods while confronting challenges. In other words, people see their religions as one way to seek for helps or to get strength [26:1-2].

     There was a good deal of religious writing--works like the Ormulum a translation of some of the Gospels read at Mass, made by the Bo&V 1 Orm about 1 zoo. There is the Ancrene Riwle-- advice given by a priest to three religious ladies living not in a convent but in a little house near a church. This is rather charming, and it seems that, for a time in the literature of England, there is an awareness of woman as woman-- a creature to be treated courteously and delicately, in gentle language. There is a connection here with the devotion to the Blessed Virgin, Mother of Christ, a cult which the Normans brought over, practiced by them in prayers and homage even when it was forbidden by Rome. Chivalry, which demanded a devotion to womankind almost amounting to worship, is another myth of old Europe, killed finally by Cervantes in the satire Don Quixote, written in Shakespeare's time. There is a curious book written about 1300--a translation from the French spoken in England --by Robert Mannyng, called Handlyng Synne, setting out in verse stories the various paths of sin--satirical, amusing, as well as edifying. There is the Pricke of Conscience, probably written by Richard Rolle about which deals with the pains of hell in horrifying detail--the damned souls, tortured by thirst, finding that fire will not quench it, suck instead the heads of poisonous snakes. Demons yell, strike with red-hot hammers, while their victims shed tears of fire, nauseated by unspeakable filth and smells of an indescribable foulness [14:153]. 
 
 

     CONCLUSION

     In this work we endeavored to consider a huge layer of English literature i.e English medieval literature. Having analyzed this complex epoch we have come to the following conclusions.

     The process of the formation of new ethno-cultural dominants proved to be a very long and gradual process the slight traces of which can be seen at the early stages of the English literature development. Many centuries elapsed until they become the cementing elements of the culture affecting various aspects of life of culture bearers.

     The chivalrous culture was one of the main ethno-cultural dominants. The phenomenon of Knighthood proved the appearance of several new directions in West-European and English literature in particular -there merged Courtly love literature.

     The literary culture of the Middle Ages was far more international than national and was divided more by lines of class and audience than by language. Latin was the language of the Church and of learning. After the eleventh century, French became the dominant language of secular European literary culture. Edward, the Prince of Wales, who took the king of France prisoner at the battle of Poitiers in 1356, had culturally more in common with his royal captive than with the common people of England. And the legendary King Arthur was an international figure. Stories about him and his knights originated in Celtic poems and tales and were adapted and greatly expanded in Latin chronicles and French romances even before Arthur became an English hero. Indeed, this period was an important time for literature in Britain. The works of the Middle English period helped to distract people from their everyday fears; today they also provide us with doorways through which we can see what everyday early English life was like.