ATTITUDES………………………………………………………………………………... 144

SECOND CULTURE ACQUISITION………………………………………………………145

SOCIAL DISTANCE………………………………………………………………………...147

CULTURE IN THE CLASSROOM…………………………………………………………150

LANGUAGE POLICY AND POLITICS……………………………………………………152

World Englishes……………………………………………………………………....153 ESL and EFL…………………………………………………………………………..153

Linguistic Imperialism and Language Rights…………………………………………154

Language Policy and the "English Only" Debate……………………………………..155

LANGUAGE, THOUGHT, AND CULTURE………………………………………………156

In the Classroom: Toward a Principled Approach to Language Pedagogy…………………  159

TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION…………………………………161

SUGGESTED READINGS……………………………………………………………………………162

LANGUAGE LEARNING EXPERIENCE: JOURNAL ENTRY 7……………………………… 163 
 

8 CROSS-LINGUISTIC INFLUENCE AND LEARNER LANGUAGE……………….164

THE CONSTRUCTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS…………………………………….. 164

FROM THE CAH TO CLI (CROSS-LINGUISTIC INFLUENCE)………………………..166

MARKEDNESS AND UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR………………………………………...168

LEARNER LANGUAGE……………………………………………………………………169

ERROR ANALYSIS…………………………………………………………………………170

Mistakes and Errors……………………………………………………………………171

Errors in Error Analysis……………………………………………………………….172

Identifying and Describing Errors…………………………………………………….173

Sources of Error……………………………………………………………………….176

Interlingual Transfer…………………………………………………………….176

Intralingual Transfer…………………………………………………………….176

Context of Learning…………………………………………………………….178

Communication Strategies……………………………………………………...178

STAGES OF LEARNER LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT……………………………...…179

VARIABILITY IN LEARNER LANGUAGE………………………………………………180

FOSSILIZATION…………………………………………………………………………….182

FORM - FOCUSED INSTRUCTION……………………………………………………….183

ERROR TREATMENT……………………………………………………………………...184

In the Classroom: A Model for Error Treatment………………………………………………… 187

TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION…………………………………190

SUGGESTED READINGS……………………………………………………………………………191

LANGUAGE LEARNING EXPERIENCE: JOURNAL ENTRY 8……………………………… 192  

9 COMMNICATIVE COMPETENCE……………………………………………………193

DEFINING COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE…………………………………………193

LANGUAGE FUNCTION…………………………………………………………………...195

FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUSES……………………………………………………………..198

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS…………………………………………………………………...199

     Conversation Analysis…………………………………………………………………200

PRAGMATICS………………………………………………………………………………202

     Language and Gender…………………………………………………………………203

STYLES AND REGISTERS………………………………………………………………...204

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION……………………………………………………….205

Kinesics………………………………………………………………………………..206

Eye Contact……………………………………………………………………………206

Proxemics……………………………………………………………………………...207

Artifacts………………………………………………………………………………..207

Kinesthetics……………………………………………………………………………207

Olfactory Dimensions…………………………………………………………………207

In the Classroom: Communicative Language Teaching…………………………………………208

TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION…………………………………209

SUGGEATED READING……………………………………………………………………………  210

LANGUAGE LEARNING EXPERIENCE: JOURNAL ENTRY 9……………………………… 211 
 

10  THEORIES OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION…………………………213

BUILDING A THEORY OF SLA………………………………………………………….213

Domains and Generalizations…………………………………………………………213

Hypotheses and Claims………………………………………………………………214

Criteria for a Viable Theory …………………………………………………………216

AN INNATIST MODEL: KRASHEN’S INPUT HYPOTHESIS………………………….217

COGNITIVE MODELS…………………………………………………………………….220

McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Model………………………………………….220

Implicit and Explicit Models…………………………………………………………222

A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST MODEL: LONG’S INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS….224

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE………………………………………………………….225

Out on a Limb: The Ecology of Language Acquisition…………………………………………  229

TOPICS AND QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION…………………………………232

SUGGESTED READINGS……………………………………………………………………………233

LANGUAGE LEARNING EXPERIENCE: FINAL JOURNAL ENTRY………………………   233 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

H.   DOUGLAS BROWN

San Francisco State University

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

 

When the first edition of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching appeared in 1980, the field of second language acquisition (SLA) was relatively manageable. We had a handful of professional journals devoted to SLA, a good collection of anthologies and conference proceedings, and a small but respectable number of books on SLA and teaching. Today the field of SLA has so many branches and subfields and specializations that it is virtually impossible to "manage"!

     In the December 1997 issue of the semi-annually published Second Language Instruction/Acquisition Abstracts, 180 periodicals were surveyed and 240 book reviews cited. Some thirty major subject matter areas included child language acquisition, non-native language pedagogy, testing, literacy studies, reading processes and instruction, writing, bilingualism, bilingual education, translation, pragmatics, discourse analysis, specific languages, lexicology, interpersonal behavior and communication, sociolinguistics, language planning, nonverbal language, and more. And several major fields were subsumed into other topics: psycholinguistics, intercultural communication, world Englishes, curriculum design, and critical pedagogy, among others. Incidentally, the December 1997 issue of the above mentioned abstracting journal was the last issue that was printed in hard copy; now, the material has to be electronically downloaded because there is more information than print media can handle!

     Today we can see that the manageable stockpile of research of just a few decades ago has been replaced by a coordinated, systematic storehouse of information. Subfields have been defined and explored. Researchers around the world are meeting, talking, exchanging findings, comparing data, and arriving at some mutually acceptable explanations. A remarkable number of respectable, refereed journals are printing the best and most interesting of this research. Our research miscarriages are fewer as we have collectively learned how to conceive the right questions.

     At the same time, we should not be too smug. The wonderful intricacy of complex facets of human behavior will be very much with us for some time. Roger Brown's (1966: 326) wry remark of a number of decades ago still applies: 

Psychologists find it exciting when a complex mental phenomenon—something intelligent and slippery—seems about to be captured by a mechanical model. We yearn to see the model succeed. But when, at the last minute, the phenomenon proves too much for the model and darts off on some uncapturable tangent, there is something in us that rejoices at the defeat. 

We can rejoice in our defeats because we know that it is the very elusiveness of this phenomenon of SLA that makes the quest for answers so exciting. Our field of inquiry is no simple, unidimensional reality. It is "slippery" in every way. 

PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE 

Principles of Language Learning and Teaching is designed to give you a picture of both the slipperiness of SLA and the systematic storehouse of reliable knowledge that is now available to us. As you consider the issues, chapter by chapter, you are led on a quest for your own personal, integrated understanding of how people learn—and sometimes fail to learn—a second language. That quest is eclectic: no single theory or hypothesis will provide a magic formula for all learners in all contexts. And the quest is cautious: you will be urged to be as critical as you can in considering the merit of various models and theories and research findings. By the end of the final chapter, you will no doubt surprise yourself on how many pieces of this giant puzzle you can actually put together!

     In its first three editions, this book has served a number of purposes for many audiences around the world. For graduates or advanced undergraduates in language-teacher education programs, it is a textbook on the theoretical foundations of language teaching. For a surprising number of people it has become a book that Master's degree candidates pore over in preparation for comprehensive examinations! For experienced teachers, it has become a handbook that provides an overview of current issues in the field.

     For the most part, you do not need to have prior technical knowledge of linguistics or psychology in order to comprehend this book. An attempt has been made to build, from the beginning, on what an educated person knows about the world, life, people, and communication. And the book can be used in programs for educating teachers of any foreign language, even though many illustrative examples here are in English since that is the language common to all readers. 

CHANGES IN THE FOURTH EDITION 

The first question people ask me when they hear that a new edition is about to appear is: "What changes will you make?" In anticipation of these questions about the Fourth Edition, I offer the following highlights: 

1.  Updated topics and references. In a field growing as rapidly as ours, a period of six or seven years sees many advances. The current edition features some new topics: constructivist approaches to SLA, new data on the  critical period hypothesis, emotional intelligence, language aptitude, strategies-based instruction (SBI), the neurobiology of affect, language  policy  and  politics, intercultural  communication, cross-linguistic influence, form-focused instruction, and Long's Interaction Hypothesis, to name a few. Other topics have been updated to reflect current work in the field. And out of literally thousands of new articles, books, and chapters that have appeared since the last edition, I have added a selection of some 200 new bibliographic references that report the latest work in SLA.

2.  Reorganized chapters. If you were just getting used to the Third Edition, be prepared to look carefully at the new edition. The process of revising has involved a reorganization of a substantial proportion of the material.

3.  Deletion of the chapter on Language Testing (10). An overwhelming number of readers and reviewers have stated that the Testing chapter cannot be covered within the scope of a term of coursework. I have therefore deleted that chapter and placed it, in revised form, into the new Second Edition of my companion textbook, Teaching by Principles. What was Chapter 11 in the Third Edition has become Chapter 10 here.

4.  Redesigned teacher-friendly end-of-chapter exercises. In previous editions, the end-of-chapter exercises were designed for individual contemplation and possibly for teachers to adapt to classroom discussion. In this edition, new and improved classroom-tested exercises are explicitly designed for in-class group work, pair work, whole-class discussion, and individual work.

5.  More accessible suggestions for further reading. In this edition the suggestions for further reading now more effectively target an audience of students just beginning in the field of SLA. Few esoteric, technical articles are listed, and instead students are led to more reader-friendly material.