Контрольная работа по "Иностранному языку"

    Literal translating is to be employed when dealing with separate words whose surface form and structure, as well as their lexical meaning in the source language and in the target language, fully coincide. These are predominantly international by original morphemes, lexemes/words, rarer word-groups having in English and Ukrainian (and often in some other languages too) a literally identical or very similar presentation and identical lexical meaning: administrator адміністратор, director директор, region регіон, hotel/motelготель/мотель, hydrometer гідрометр, Tom Том, etc.

    Verbal translating is also employed at lexeme/word level. But unlike literal translating it never conveys the orthographic or the sounding form of the source language units, but their denotative meaning only: fearful страшний, fearless безстрашний, helpless безпорадний, incorrect неправильний, mistrust недовір'я (недовіра), superprofit надприбуток, non-interference невтручання, weightlessness невагомість etc.

     Verbal translating of polysemantic words permits a choice among some variants which is practically impossible in literal translating, which aims only at maintaining the literal form.

    Verbal translating, however, does not and can not provide a faithful conveying of sense/content at other than word level. When employed at the level of word-combinations or sentences verbal translation may often make the language units ungrammatical and pervert or completely ruin their sense, never say die is not ніколи не кажи помираю but не падай духом.

    Word-for-word translation is another method of rendering sense. It presents a consecutive verbal translation though at the level of word-groups and sentences. Usually the students employ word-for-word translation to convey the sense of word-groups or sentences which have a structural form, the order of words, and the means of connection quite different from those in the target language.

    The interlinear way/method of translating is a conventional term for a strictly faithful rendering of sense expressed by word-groups and sentences at the level of some text. The latter may be a passage, a stanza, an excerpt of a work or the work itself. The method of interlinear translation may be practically applied to all speech units(sentences, supersyntactic units, passages). Interlinear translation always provides a completely faithful conveying only of content, which is often achieved through various transformations of structure of many sense units.

    Literal translating – artistic translation (артистичний переклад віршів).

    Adequate translating – is the maximum level of equivalents (підбір синонімів). 

    7. Еквівалентність  та типи лексичних  еквівалентів. Абсолютні  та часткові еквіваленти.  Переклад інтернаціональної  лексики. Проблема "несправжніх  друзів" перекладача.

    Translating equivalent means indirectly equal, that is equal by the similarity of meanings (catch the idea). Translating equivalents in a dictionary are just the prompts for the translator. One may find a proper equivalent only in speech due to the context, situation and background language.

    e.g. picture – to take pictures; Africa – чорний континент.

    The idea o translation equivalence is strongly related to that of the unit of translation – the text length required to obtain proper equivalent.

    Traditionally and from practical viewpoint the optimal length of text for translation is a sentence.

    The units of the target language with the meanings similar to the relevant units of the source language are called translation equivalents.

    2 basic grades of target equivalents:

    1. Full translation equivalents are presumed when there is complete coincidence of pragmatic meanings of the source and target language units. Full equivalence is commonly accepted as a convenient makeshift.

    2. Partial translation equivalents are the absence of one or more of equivalence aspects, that means syntactic, semantic or pragmatic aspects. Examples of semantic and pragmatic equivalents: зелений – green, зелений театр – open-air stage, зелений хлопчисько  - greenhorn, зелений борщ – sorrel soup. 

    False friends.

    There are words in 2 languages which are more or less similar in form. Translator considers them as permanent equivalents.

    There words are similar, because of common origin (Latin or Greek). They can be found in a number of languages [translator’s false friends].

    2 main groups:

1. similar in form – different in meaning (complexion, lunatic, accurate).
2. words which by different reasons are not fully interchange.

    Reasons:

    1. The semantic factor resulting from the different subsequent development of the words borrowed by the two languages from the same source. As often as not, the translator may opt for an occasional equivalent to a pseudointernational word just as he may do while dealing with any other type of the word:

    South Vietnam was a vast laboratory for the testing of weapons of counter-guerrilla warfare.

    Южный Вьетнам стал полигоном для испытания  оружия, используемого в войне  против партизан.

    2. The stylistic factor resulting from the difference in the emotive or stylistic connotation of the correlated words.

    Davy took on Faraday as his assistant and thereby opened a scientific career for him.

    Дэви  взял Фарадея к себе в ассистенты и тем самым открыл ему путь в науку.

    3. The co-occurrence factor reflecting the difference in the lexical combinability rules in the two languages.

    The reason for including only minor gestures of reforms in the program...

    Причина включения в программу лишь жалкого  подобия реформ…

    4. The pragmatic factor reflecting the difference in the background knowledge of the members of the two language communities which makes the translator reject the formal equivalent in favour of the more explicit or familiar variant.

    The American Revolution was a close parallel to the wars of national liberation in the colonial and semi-colonial countries.

    Война за независимость в Америке была прямым прототипом национально-освободительных  войн в колониальных и полуколониальных странах.

    Internationalisms.

    - language units which are borrowed another language. Internationalisms may be not only words but phrases, morphemes.

    Prefixes: anti, inter, ex, trans, ultra.

    Suffixes: ist, -ssion, - tion.

    Inflexions: um (memorandum), -a (formula).

    Are used in:

1. economic, politic, social terminology.
2. history / sciences.
3. technical terms.

    8. Безеквівалентна лексика. Реалія як компонент соціально-історичного і національно-культурного контексту. Класифікація. Способи перекладу: транскрипція, транслітерація, калькування, описовий переклад.

    EQUIVALENT-LACKING WORDS

    Безэквивалентная  лексика – это слова или  словосочетания, обозначающие предметы, процессы и явления, которые на данном этапе развития языка перевода не имеют в нем эквивалентов. (drugstore – аптека-закусочная (Ильф и Петров „Одноэтажная Америка”), selectman – член городского управления).

    При переводе безэквивалентной лексики используются:

    - перифразирование

    - синонимия

    When new words come into being to denote new objects or phenomena, they naturally cannot have regular equivalents in another language. Such equivalents may only gradually evolve as the result of extensive contacts between the two nations. Therefore the translator coming across a new coinage has to interpret its meaning and to choose the appropriate way of rendering it in his translation. Consider the following sentence: "In many European capitals central streets have been recently pedestrianized.'¹ First, the translator will recognize the origin of "pedestrianize" which is coined from the word "pedestrian" — «пешеход» and the verb-forming suffix -ize. Then he will realize the impossibility of a similar formation in Russian (опешеходить!) and will opt for a semantic transformation: «движение транспорта было запрещено», «улицы были закрыты для транспорта» or «улицы были отведены только для пешеходов».

    Various translators may select different ways of translating a new coinage, with several substitutes competing with one another. As a rule, one of them becomes more common and begins to be used predominantly. For instance, the new term "word-processor" was translated into Russian as «словообработчик», «словопроцессор» and «текстопроцессор», the last substitute gaining the upper hand. The translator should carefully watch the development of the usage and follow the predominant trend.

    Similar problems have to be solved by the translator when he deals with equivalent-lacking words referring to various SL realia. As often as not, the translator tries to transfer the name to TL by way of borrowing, loan word or approximate equivalents. Many English words have been introduced in Russian in this way: «бейсбол» (baseball), «небоскреб» (skyscraper), «саквояжники» (carpet baggers), etc. Quite a number of equivalent-lacking words of this type, however, still have no established substitutes in Russian, and the translator has to look for an occasional equivalent each time he comes across such a word in the source text. Mention can be made here of 'filibustering", "baby-sitter", "tinkerer", "know-how", "ladykiller", and many others.

    A large group of equivalent-lacking English words includes words of general semantics which may have a great number of substitutes in Russian which cannot be listed or enumerated. These are such words as "approach, control, corporate, pattern, record, facility", etc. Numerous lexical units of this type are created by conversion especially when compound verbs are nominalized. What is "a fix-up" for example? It can refer to anything that is fixed up. And "a set-up" is anything that is set up, literally or figuratively. The translator is expected to understand the general idea conveyed by the word and to see what referent it is denoting in each particular case.

    Special attention should be paid to English conjunctions and prepositions which are often used differently from their apparent equivalents in Russian and are, in fact, equivalent-lacking. Such common conjunctions as "when, if, as, once, whichever".

    Similar pitfalls can be set for the translator by such productive English "semi-suffixes" as -minded, -conscious, -oriented, -manship,etc.

    Realia – names or objects unknown to the target language speaker.

1. SL realia;
2. TL realia.

    Ways of handling:

1. semantic transformation, when it’s impossible to translate directly;
2. to translate by several substitutes (and after that use one of the most common “word-processor”;
3. by way of borrowing words (калькування) – Госдума – State Duma;
4. if the word has many substitutes – choose one according to a context.

    Descriptive translating – a kind, when the notion in source language is conveyed in target language only through word-combination or whole sentence. Descriptive translating implies structural transformation.

    Transliteration – the transmission of text, written with the help of one alphabet by the means of the other alphabet. Often used to translate proper names.

    Context-free words have an important role to play in the translating process. They usually have permanent equivalents in TL which, in most cases, can be used in TT. The translator is thus provided with reference points helping him to choose the appropriate translation variants. The permanent equivalents of context-free words are often formed by transcription (with possible elements of transliteration) or loan translations.

    Proper and geographical names are transcribed with TL letters, e.g.: Smith - Смит, Brown – Браун.

    The same is true about the titles of periodicals and the names of firms and corporations, e.g.: Life-лЛайф», US News and World Report — «ЮС ньюс энд уорлд рипорт», General Motors Corporation - «Дженерал моторе корпорейшн».

    The rules of transcription have two minor exceptions. First, it is sometimes supplemented by elements of transliteration when SL letters are reproduced in TT instead of sounds. This technique is used with mute and double consonants between vowels or at the end of the word and with neutral vowels (Dorset —Дорсет, Bonners Ferry —Боннере Ферри) as well as to preserve some elements of SL spelling so as to make the TL equivalent resemble some familiar pattern (the Hercules missile — ракета «Геркулес», Columbia - Колумбия). Second, there are some traditional exceptions in rendering the names of historical personalities and geographical names, e.g.: Charles I —Карл I, James II —Яков П, Edinborough — Эдинбург.

    Возможны 2 типа свободного перевода устойчивых выражений: калькирование и описательный перевод.

    Калькирование – дословный перевод, при котором в языке перевода сохраняются семантические и стилистические признаки оригинала. Калькирование применяется в тех случаях, когда в англ. языке эквивалентная лексическая единица отсутствует, а более или менее дословный перевод русского сочетания, особенно метафорического, будет в целом понятен и будет передавать образность. Например, незрелая мысль – green idea, Государственная Дума – State Duma.

    Описательный  перевод – переводчик раскрывает значение описательным путем. Например, словосочетание видное место (в газете) можно передать как терминологически – prominent place, так и описательным путем: поместить на видном месте – to feature a story.

    Крылатое  выражение человек в футляре не имеет подобного эквивалента в англ языке, поэтому его перевод будет описательным: a person who keeps oneself in cotton wool and is afraid of any changes.

    Національно-культурний контекст

    Culturally biased, i.e., nationally specific are often elements in a governmental or election systems of a country (cf. the administration, secretaries and undersecretaries or primary elections in the U.S.A.).

    The monetary systems in most countries contain some nationally peculiar units as well (cf. shilling, penny, rouble, dollar, hryvnia). Culturally biased are mostly the titles of address and the ways of conduct, and, at last but not at least, some articles of clothing / footware (cf. the Scottish kilt, tartan, the Ukrainian вишиванка, кептар or the American Indians' moccasins).

    Most peculiar are always national meals, beverages and even partaking of food, established as a result of a nation's agricultural traditions and consumption of peculiar products. The nationally biased notions as non-equivalent units of lexicon are also observed in some national systems of weights and measures (cf. English mile, ounce, Ukrainian верства, пуд). All in all, these notions are found in all languages, for example, in English: county, borough, butterscotch, custard, muffin, toffee, bushel, chain, furlong, inch, mile, pint, penny, shilling, pound, lady, mister, sir; lobby, speaker, teller (Parliament), Lord Chancellor, Number 10 Downing Street, Whitehall, etc. Ukrainian: кобзар, веснянка, коломийка, козак, запорожець, кептар, копа (яєць), пуд, січ, свитка, хата, лежанка, весільний батько, троїсті музики, вечорниці, борщ, вареники, галушки, кутя, медок, ряжанка, опришок, плахта, гривня; Russian: тройка, квас, щі, самовар, колхоз, совет (советский), спутник, Дума.

    Still other specific national notions become world-wide known through literary/historic works, through the press or by way of other mass media like the radio or television (cf. oasis, boycott, hryvnia, Labourist, pagoda, barter, management, picket, taboo, Tory, rickshaw, sauna, Soviet, etc.). 

    9. Характеристика основних  функціональних стилів  та питання перекладу.  Жанрово-стилістичні  с особливості  перекладу художньої,  суспільно-політичної, дипломатичної, юридичної,  науково-технічної  літератури та документів.