Контрольная работа по "Иностранному языку"

1. Предмет та статус теорії перекладу. Роль-перекладу у  розвитку світової культури та зміцненні міжнародних  зв'язків.

    Translation is a means of interlingual communication. The translator makes possible an exchange of information between the users of different languages by producing in the target language (TL or the translating language) a text which has an identical communicative value with the source (or original) text (ST). This target text (TT, that is the translation) is not fully identical with ST as to its form or content due to the limitations imposed by the formal and semantic differences between the source language (SL) and TL.

    The structure of the translation should follow that of the original text: there should be no change in the sequence of narration or in the arrangement of the segments of the text.

    The aim is maximum parallelism of structure which would make it possible to relate each segment of the translation to the respective part of the original. Of major importance is the semantic identification of the translation with ST. It is presumed that the translation has the same meaning as the original text. The translator usually tries to produce in TL the closest possible equivalent to ST.

    The theory of translation provides the translator with the appropriate tools of analysis and synthesis, makes him aware of what he is to look for in the original text, what type of information he must convey in TT and how he should act to achieve his goal.

    Strengthening of internat.relations (Ukraine)

    The gaining of independence by Ukraine in 1991 awoke an unknown before increase in the employment of both oral and written translation, which became needed for the establishment of international relations with the rest of the world. These two types of translation provided a newly independent country in its first years with the mass of the official international texts of diplomatic and legal nature (treaties, agreements). Due to the active employment of written translation Ukraine could successfully establish and maintain its international relations with outside world.

    The only functioning organ except some private publishing houses, which continued to publish the works of foreign literatures in Ukrainian translation remained the Vsesvit journal. The Ukrainian reader has received mostly high quality artistic of works by many foreign classics and mostly prominent contemporary poets, whose works have never been published in Ukrainian before.

    Among the translators, who have greatly contributed to the recognition of foreign literature were: M.Pinchevskiy, M.Mitrofanov, M.Lytvinets and others.   

    2.Загально-лінгвістичні аспекти перекладу. Мова і реальний світ. Система мови. Співвідношення систем різних мов

    The relation of language to the extralinguistic world involves 3 basic sets of elements:

1. language signs (sequence of sounds or symbols which is associated with a single concept in the minds of speakers of that or another language. .signs are a kind of construction elements of which a language is built);

    mental concepts (array of mental images and associations related to a particular part of the extralinguistic world, on the one hand, and connected with a particular language sign, on the other); 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

   

2. denotatum – parts of the extra linguistic world which not necessarily material or physically really existing..

 

    The system of language is some order organizing hundreds of thousands of words making it easier to memorize and properly use them in speech. In any language system two general planes are usually distinguished: the formal plane, comprising spoken or written language sign and the semantic, comprising mental concepts the language signs stand for (words from a dictionary- formal plane, its definitions- semantic plane).

    A language system is traditionally divided into three basic levels:

    1.morphological (including morphs and morphemes objects),

    2. lexical (including words and objects),

    3. syntactic (including such elements as Subject, Predicate).

    At each language level its objects may be grouped according to their meaning or function. Such groups are called paradigms. (spring, summer, winter, autumn – lexico-semantic paradigm of seasons). elements of language paradigms are united and organized according to their potential roles in speech formation. These roles are called valences (здатність слів сполучатися з іншими словами). The paradigms brought together form the system of the language.

    Language paradigms are virtual elements of the lang. which are activated in syntactically interdependent groups of sentence elements called syntagma. A syntagma is a pair of words connected by the master-servant relationship.

• paradigms which are activated into independent groups of sentence elements.

    In different languages set elements and syntagmas are often different.

    The list of definite differences between Russian and English language systems.

 
 
 

    3.Переклад  як засіб комунікації.  Види перекладацької  діяльності. Письмовий  та усний переклад. Послідовний та  синхронний переклад. Машинний переклад: стан, перспективи.

    Communicational theory of translation describes the process of translation as an act of special bilingual communication in which the translator act as a special communication intermediary, making it possible to understand a message sent in a different language. Translation

    There are two main kinds of translation:

1. written (translation):
• literary translation;
• official documents.
2. oral (interpretation):
• consecutive (chuchotage, at-sight interpretation);
• simultaneous.

    We can distinguish between written and oral translation. As the names suggest, in written translation the source text is in written form, as is the target text. In oral translation or interpretation the interpreter listens to the oral presentation of the original and translates it as an oral message in TL. As a result, in the first case the Receptor of the translation can read it while in the second case he hears it. The line of demarcation between written and oral translation is drawn not only because of their forms but also because of the sets of conditions in which the process takes place. The first is continuous, the other momentary. In written translation the original can be read and re-read as many times as the translator may need or like. The same goes for the final product. The translator can re-read his translation, compare it to the original, make the necessary corrections or start his work all over again. The conditions of oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translator's performance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only once and for a short period of time. His translation is also a one-time act with no possibility of any return to the original or any subsequent corrections. This creates additional problems and the users have sometimes; to be content with a lower level of equivalence.

    There are two main kinds of oral translation — consecutive and simultaneous.

    In consecutive translation the translating starts after the original speech or some part of it has been completed. Here the interpreter's strategy and the final results depend, to a great extent, on the length of the segment to be translated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely follows the original speech. He has to remember a great number of messages and keep them in mind until he begins his translation. To make this possible the interpreter has to take notes of the original messages.

    In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the original message.

    Machine translation (word-to-word translation) invented in 1949 by the American mathematic Weaver.

    There are different approaches or methods of translation automation:

1. direct or icon method (encoding-decoding) is based on establishing a direct relationship between the source and target dictionary entries. The source and target texts are similar in form and conceptual content. It’s word-for-word translation. To improve the quality we use:

1. syntactic filters – logical frames.

2. Statistical ranking of translation equivalents – select the most probable ones for translation equivalents – select the most probable ones for the subject, discussed in text.

2. transfer-based method – grammars of the source and target languages are matched in the process of translation by a set of rules called transfer.

    Steps of translation:

1. morphological analysis;
2. syntactic analysis;
3. transfer;
4. syntactic synthesis;
5. morphological synthesis.
3. pilot language-based machine translation.

    Similar to #2, but also:

• involves all available linguistic information;
• applicable to any language (not just one concrete language pair).

4. statistical methods – presume that with certain probability each word of the target text be a translation of each word of the source language text.

5. computer-aided translation – is a tool to assist human translation (a translator uses a machine translation system to find equivalents for words, words combinations etc.)

 

    4. Значення слова  та переклад. Багатозначність  та широта значення  слова.  Лінгвістичний  та екстралінгвістичний  характер перекладу.  Лексичне значення, конотація та асоціація. 

    Description of the translating process is one of the major tasks of the translation theory. Here we deal with the dynamic aspects of translation trying to understand how the translator performs the transfer operation from source text to target text. A model is a conventional representation of the translating process describing mental operations by which the source text or some part of it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations are actually performed by the translator. The existing models of the translating process are based on the same assumptions which we consider in discussing the problem of equivalence namely the situational model is based on the identity on the situations described in the original text and in the translation and the semantic-transformational model. In the situational model this intermediate level is extralinguistic. It is described reality, the facts of the life that are presented by the verbal description. A different approach was used by Nida who suggested that the translating may be described as a series of transformations. The transformational model postulates that in any two languages there is a number of nuclear structures which are fully equivalent to each other. A similar approach can be used to describe the translation of semantic units. The semantic model postulates the existence of the “deep” semantic categories common to source language and target language. It is presumed that the translator first reduced the semantic units of the original to these basic semantic categories and then expresses the appropriate notions by the semantic units of target language.  Another approach to the description of the process of the translating consists in the identification of different types of operations performed by the translator. Here the process is viewed as a number of manipulations with the form or content of the original as a result of which the translator creates the text in the target language.

    The first group of operations is characterized by imitation of the form of a word or of a collocation.

    The second group of operations includes all types of lexical transformations involving certain semantic changes. As a result the meaning of a word or word combination in the ST may be made more specific more general or somewhat modified as a way to discovering as appropriate equivalent in TL.

    The third group of translating procedures comprises all types of transformations involving units of SL grammar. Sometimes the translator can prefer portioning to the other possible methods of translation, as producing a variant more suitable stylistically or emotionally. Consider the following example: The annual surveys of the Labour Government were not discussed with the workers at any stage, but only the  employers. – Ежегодные сборы лейбористского правительства не обсуждались среди рабочих на этом этапе. Они обсуждались только с предпринимателями. Words in language are related to certain  referents which they designate and to other words of the same language with which they make up syntactic units. These relationships are called semantic and syntactic, represectively.

    Lexical meanings is the general concept corresponding to a word or a combination of words.

    Connotation is an additional, contrastive value of the basic usually designative function of the lexical meaning.

    Association is a more or less regular connection established between the given and other mental concepts in the minds of the language speakers. 

    5. Визначення перекладу  як предмета лінгвістичного  дослідження. Етапи  перекладу. Головні  теоретичні підходи  до перекладу.

    Translation means both a process and a result. In order to explain translation we need to compare the source text (original) and target one.

    While translating we should consider extralinguistic situation and background information.

    As an object of linguistic study translation is a complex entity consisting of the following interrelated components:

1. elements and structures of the source text;
2. elements and structures of the target text;
3. transformation rules to transform the elements and structures of the source text into those of the target text; system of the languages involved in translation;
4. conceptual content and organization of the source text;
5. conceptual content and organization of the target text;
6. interrelation of the conceptual contents of the source and target texts.

    Translation is a functional interaction of languages.

    3 stages of translation:

    1. analysis of the source text, situation and background information;

    2. synthesis of the translation model;

    3. verification of the model against the source and target context (semantic, grammatical, stylistic) situation, and background information resulting in the generation of the final target text.

    Verification is performed either simultaneously or with a delay (at first to understand the following sentence).

    3 main translation approaches:

    Transformational – denotative – communicational.

    The transformational approach suggests that in any language there are certain regular syntactic, morphological and word-building structures which may be successfully matched with their analogies in another language during translation (machine translation).

    The denotative approach treats different languages as closed systems with specific relationships between formal and conceptual aspects, hence in the process of translation links between the forms of different languages are established via conceptual aspects equivalence.

    The communicational approach highlights a very important aspect of translation – the matching of thesaurus. Translation may achieve its ultimate target only of the translator knows the user’s language and the subject matter of the translation well enough. Scientists argues about the priorities in a translators education.  

    6. Проблема перекладності.  Поняття адекватності  перекладу. Види  перекладу: буквальний, вільний, адекватний.