Pottery and porcelain

Contents

1. The title page……………………………………………………………………1

2. Contents…………………………………………………………………………2

3. Introduction……………………………………………………………………..3

4. Part I: History of the appearance of ceramics…………………………………..4

4.1. The emergence of ceramics………………………………………………….4

4.2. The most ancient kinds of ceramics…………………………………………4

4.3. Stoneware ceramics………………………………………………………….5

5. Part II: Ceramic products ……………………………………………………….6

5.1 Porcelain……………………………………………………………………...6

5.2 Faience………………………………………………………………………..7

5.3 Brick………………………………………………………………………….7

5.4 Refractory materials………………………………………………………….8

6. Part III : Types of ceramics……………………………………………………..9

6.1 Products with a porous shard………………………………………………...9

6.2 Products with dense shard……………………………………………………9

6.3 Division of ceramic products for constructive purposes……………………..9

6.4 Products of plastic molding, dry pressing and injection……………………..9

7. Part IV: Technology of production of ceramic products………………………10

7.1 Stages of the production of ceramic products……………………………….10

7.2 Clay dough…………………………………………………………………..10

7.3 Additional processing……………………………………………………….10

7.4 Moulding ceramic products…………………………………………………10

7.5 Casting in plaster moulds……………………………………………………11

7.6 Dry products…………………………………………………………………11

8. Part V: Ceramics of the Ural…………………………………………………...12

8.1 The pottery of Perm Krai……………………………………………………12

8.2 The Stahl’s Pottery…………………………………………………………..12

8.3Pottery of Kungur…………………………………………………………….12

9. Part VI: Changes to the "Willow Pattern"……………………………………...13

10. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….16

11. Attachment……………………………………………………………………17

12. Literature……………………………………………………………………...21

 

 

Introduction.

Since ancient times, BC, people used ceramic products at home. The word ceramics originates from Greek and means pottery. Ceramic items from ancient times received by firing clay. Clay is very common in nature that’s why pottery is widely developed and easily spread in different parts of the world. The first potteries were building materials: brick, tile, economic dishes-plates, pots, jugs.

In our time, ceramic products are still very relevant. In each house there is something of ceramics. I love small figurines of animals. My mom loves ceramic ware. My nephew really likes ceramic whistles. In our house there always are new ceramic flower pots.

I like pottery, and so I wanted to know more about it: history, properties, processing and painting on ceramics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Part I

History of the appearance of ceramics

1.1 Ceramics has been known since antiquity and is perhaps the first man-made material. It was believed that the emergence of ceramics is directly connected with the transition of the rights to a settled way of life, so it happened much later than the dumpster. More recently, the first known examples of ceramics belonged to the upper Palaeolithic (Gravet cultur). However, found in 1993 pots of Syanzhendon were made 20 thousand years ago. The oldest object of baked clay dates 29-25 BC, it is Venus which is stored in the Moravian Museum in Brno.

In the Mesolithic cultures ceramics is used sporadically and usually at a later stage; the most sophisticated examples of Mesolithic ceramics known in the Jomon culture in Japan. In the Neolithic ceramics becomes an integral attribute almost all archaeological cultures (with the exception of the period of the oldest agrarian communities before ceramics Neolithic in the middle East, where the transition to a settled way of life occurred before many other technological innovations).

Originally ceramics were formed manually. The invention of the Potter's wheel in the third Millennium BC (late neolith - early bronze age) has greatly speed up and simplify the process of forming the product. In pre-Columbian cultures of the American Indian pottery was made without a Potter's wheel until the arrival of Europeans.

Certain types of ceramic formed gradually as improving production processes, depending on the properties of raw materials and received treatment conditions.

1.2 The most ancient kinds of ceramics is a variety of vessels, as well as spinning, weaving sinkers and other items. This ceramics different ways improved - deposited relief stamping, scratching, moulded elements. Vessels received different colors depending on the method of firing. They could veneering, stain or paint ornament cover engobe, a shiny layer (Greek ceramics and Roman Terra sigillata), colored glaze («Hafnerceramics» Renaissance).

By the end of the XVI century it appeared in Europe majolica (depending on the origin, also often called faience). Having porous shard of containing iron and lime, but white porcelain mass, it was covered with two glazes: opaque, with a high content of tin, and transparent shiny lead-glazed.

Decor wrote on majolica crude glaze before you burn the product at a temperature of about 1000 C. Paint for painting were taken of the same chemical composition that and glaze, but they were an essential part of oxides of metals, which withstand large temperature (so-called refractory colors - blue, green, yellow and purple). Beginning from the XVIII century began to apply the so-called muffle paint applied to the already burning glaze. They are used for porcelain painting.

1.3 In the XVI century in Germany spread manufacture of stone ceramic tableware. White (for example, in Siegburg) or colored (for example, in Rehren), very tight pot consisted of clay mixed with feldspar and other substances. After firing at temperatures 1200-1280 °C stoneware ceramics was getting hard and almost non porous. In the Netherlands made the red stone of ceramics on the model of the Chinese ceramics, and the same feature detects ceramics of Betherre.

Stoneware ceramics also produced Wedgwood in England. Thin faience as a special kind of ceramics with white porous shard, the same is covered with a white glaze, appeared in England in the first half of the XVIII century. Faience depending on the strength crock divided into soft thin faience with high lime content, middle - lower its content and solid - no lime. This last composition and fortress crock often reminds stone ceramic or porcelain.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Part II

Ceramic products

2.1 Porcelain. Porcelain was known in China already in very ancient times, and in Europe it began manufacturing factory method for the first time in Meissen (1710). Porcelain was received with a strong ignition («burning») plastic materials manufactured by mixing clay, porcelain earth) with powdery feldspar and quartz with a small amount of water. If the firing temperature is not too high, then the form of products stored, only to volume is greatly reduced, because the porcelain «sits» during baking. Simultaneously, the weight (the«crock») is dense (waterproof) and sonorous.

For the manufacture of solid porcelain usually used about 50% of kaolin, 25% of feldspar and 25% quartz. First roasted kaolin gives constitutional water. Then it decomposes on Al2O3 and SiO2, which dissolve in glasslike softened feldspar. Further temperature increase feldspar dissolves in increasing quantities of coarse grained quartz. As feldspar enriched silicon dioxide, it is deposited mullet, because with increasing SiO2 content solvent ability feldspar towards mullet decreases. Therefore ready porcelain consists of a glassy groundmass, which permeated closely interwoven between the needles of mullet and the remaining undissolved grains of quartz (and tiny air bubbles). As a rule, the firing is carried out twice. After the first firing, the so-called «raw firing»going around 900, porcelain put a transparent glaze: received after crude firing more porous shards quickly immersed in glaze mass - aqueous suspension of kaolin, clay, feldspar and marble. When heated from it formed hard melted glass. The subsequent drying (about 1450) produce a final firing. Often porcelain subjected to yet a third firing in a muffle furnace at red heating after applying paints, i.e. worn out with turpentine finely crushed colored glass. The most stability have paint for acute fire or underglaze paint, applied on a nonglazed crock. However, there is some colour, for which this method is possible. Finally annealed without porcelain glaze called biscuit. Instead of forming of the porcelain paste, based on its plasticity, porcelain mass can be converted into liquid state addition of a minor amount of alkali and cast in the form of plaster. As a result of absorption of water baked plaster form comes a rapid hardening of porcelain products. Porcelain not only for the manufacture of household utensils and art products, but also, and in very large extent, for the manufacture of chemical utensils, and, thanks to its insulating properties - for the manufacture insulators.

From the normal or hard porcelain differs soft-paste porcelain, which produce mainly artistic products. In soft porcelain contains less kaolin and accordingly more «wetlands», for example, feldspar, chalk. This porcelain in accordance with its ea are fired at a easy melted temperature (usually at 1200-1300) . So easy to make it a multicolored under glazed painting.

Stone materials like porcelain, are dense sonorous and so solid that is not scratched steel; besides, they are very front in relation to chemical attack. Because they are made of clay, they require lower firing temperature than hard-paste porcelain (1200-1300), do not possess such as porcelain, transparence and in most cases are not white, grey, yellow or brown color. They often cover only a thin layer of «salt» glaze, which is formed by the evaporation of salt, thrown into the microwave; due to that on the surface of such products is deposited glassy dual sodium silicate. In the chemical industry is very often used unglazed products of stone material.

Thin stone material is used for the manufacture of vases and other artistic items in architecture for the manufacture of reliefs and decoration of facades. Of stone material manufactured grey painted with blue paint old German vessels (cups etc). Examples of products from the rough brown stone material can serve as water and sewage pipes, and «metlahskie tiles». In the chemical industry used many vessels made of brown stone material: coils, cooling pipes, baths and other.

2.2 Faience, as porcelain, white, or almost white, but it is softer, so that the steel leave scratches on it; it is fragile, has sponge structure, so in most cases it should be covered with glaze. Faience produced from a mixture of clay, quartz, alkali and aluminum, sometimes add colouring oxides. Faience fired twice: first without the glaze from 1200-1300 (crude firing, while slightly weaker with icing (final roasting). From fine porcelain make sinks, bathtubs, etc. Some varieties faience often painted titanium acid in a pale cream color (sinks). Examples of unglazed earthenware serve vessels of clay, clay tube etc.

Faience has dirty-grey porous break. Therefore, it glazes, which, thanks to the addition of tin dioxide is white and opaque. Earlier faience often used for making cheap-ware; however, faience made by Wedgwood in England, almost entirely replaced the normal faience of the household and more subtle faience suitable for artistic ceramics. According to its properties faience approaches to majolica, covered with glaze.

Ordinary pottery, such as flower pots, pottery, also have a porous break. They are glaze containing mostly lead; it is painted usually added to it oxides of metals. Iron oxide gives yellow, and together with manganese dioxide - brown color; copper glaze colors green.

2.3 Brick. Brick are molded from clay and then are fired. Because clay iron oxide bricks mostly painted in red color. Brick has large porosity, because firing is carried out at a relatively low temperature. Badly burnt, thick and very sturdy brick is called clinker.

2.4 Refractory materials. «Refractory» call these materials that is not melting, can withstand the high temperatures (at least 1600). The most commonly used refractory material is fireclay, which consists of a mixture of two types of clays: burnt to the sintering, perhaps more refractory clay (actually fireclay) and red plastic clays (linking clay). There are special deposits of clay, which is being used primarily for the manufacture of fireclay. Fireclay, which usually contains about 42-45% Al2O3 and 50-54% SiO2, primarily used for lining furnaces, high-temperature furnaces and recuperators. For coke-oven, ceramic furnaces and furnaces for the steel industry (for example, oven Siemens - Martin) are used in most cases (for the first time obtained in England) silica. His prepare firing of coarse grained quartz sand, mixed with a small amount of lime mass or clay. Clay contains silica 15-17% Al2O3 and 80-83% SiO2. He soften at 1350, however melts only 1650 above. Refractory properties exceeds lime silica and silica stone (with the content of 1,5-4% CaO, from 0.3 to 2% Al2O3 and 94-96% SiO2), which melts only when 1700-1750. It and is used primarily in the furnaces of the Siemens - Martin. Greater fire resistance have the so-called, which is sillimanites btained by firing at high temperature sillimanite, cianite or andalusite (minerals single-ended Al2 SiO5, but different internal structure), which formed as a result mullite, which as already mentioned is an integral part of hard porcelain.

Of refractory substances, not containing or containing SiO2 it in very small quantities, should be called bauxite, dinamidon, magnezite and dolomite. High heat-resistant properties, magnesium, zirconium dioxide and mainly graphite (in the absence of air).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Part III

Types of ceramics

3.1 For products with a porous shard include products with water absorption crock 8-10% by mass. They are opaque, pressurized water flows. Pour include walling, roofing products, drainage pipes, terracotta* and so on, to porous glazed - facing bricks and tiles, tiles, sanitary and construction, earthenware products.

Of the product from which through crock have water absorption 3-10%, do not let the water, in a break have a shiny surface. These include clinker brick, floor tiles and glazed products.

To reduce the permeability of products, finishing their surface and protection from the external environment of the use of glaze (glass-like coating) and engobes (ceramic decorative coating).

3.2 The products of coarse ceramics pottery has a fracture of a granular structure. The majority of construction of ceramic building bricks, tiles, sewage pipes and so on - are products of the coarse ceramics. The building will be porous, as, for example, faience.

*Terrakota - unglazed clay products with a porous coarse-grained shard.

facing glazed tiles and bricks, which can withstand acid, porcelain. Crock porcelain, besides, a little Shine through.

3.3 For constructive purposes ceramic products are divided on the wall (brick, ceramic stones, blocks, panels), roofing (tiles clay), floor (hollow stones, beams, slabs and coating of ceramic stones), for facing facades of buildings (brick and stone ceramic face, carpet ceramics, architectural and artistic details, tile facade, podokonnye plum, small-sized tiles), for the inner lining (floor tiles, glazed tiles and fittings to them - rods, angles, belts), aggregates for light concrete (agloporit, keramzit, «keramdor»), ceramic pipes sewage and drainage, road brick, sanitary-technical (kitchen tables, tubs, toilets), acid-resistant bricks, tiles, pipes and fittings for them, refractories and insulation (perlite ceramics, diatomaceous and others).

3.4 The method of molding distinguish products of plastic molding, dry pressing and injection molding. The plastic molding products include corpulent brick ceramic, lightweight construction, ceramic stones and other products dry pressing - hollow brick ceramic, facing tiles, floor tiles (metlahskie) and others, to targeted casting - majolica tiles, facade, carpets, sanitary-technical and other.

 

 

Part IV

Technology of production of ceramic products.

4.1 Manufacture of ceramic products includes several stages: preparation testoobraznoj masses, forming products, application of the decoration, drying, roasting in the oven.

4.2 Clay dough should be homogeneous on structure, without lamination and air bubbles evenly mixed with additives, humidified up to the necessary plasticity, is able to take one or the other form with little pressure. Fitness clay does not stick to your hands, its individual pieces can easily be connected. There are several ways of preparation of a clay test. One of them is the following: the dry and fragmented clay pour with plenty of water, stir up of fluid status, pass through a sieve into a clean container. Clay settles on the bottom. Then the excess water is removed by evaporation or by means of a pump. In summer the water easily evaporate in a wider capacity.

4.3 Before molding clay mass undergoes additional processing: from her remove air bubbles and give it a homogeneous structure.

4.4 Forming of ceramic products is carried out in various ways: plastic molding, molding (using gypsum forms), pressing, hot moulding under pressure.

The most frequently used methods of plastic molding: manual - «by hand» (in the manufacture of fine art products - flowers, decorations and so on); forming «sausages»; plaster moulds modeling; plaster moulds using a template; on a Potter's wheel.

Potter's wheel allows you to create symmetric, uniformly expanding or shrinking vessels of various shapes. It consists of an iron vertical rod attached to the desktop, and two wooden wheels - large, the lower diameter 95-105 cm), and small, in the upper (diameter of 30 to 40 cm). Potter's wheel is driven by the rotation of the foot of the lower circle. The upper circle is directly working place which is formed into the product. In this case you need some tools: wooden Rezan, a piece of flat rubber, greckaya sponge, a metal stick, pieces of skin and Plexiglas.

Work on the Potter's wheel requires a virtuoso mastery. Crude clay, who was thrown on the Potter's wheel, with wet hands are pulled into the cone. Pressing down on him hand, Gonchar lowers the weight down. This is repeated several times (to align the texture of clay masses). Elongated whom as a result of the pressure of the thumb is turned into a hollow cylinder. Skipping the cylinder wall between two fingers, grinds body and neck of the product. Using a wooden torch mass give the necessary form. During formation of hands should periodically moisten with water, to strengthen slip of the fingers. Giving the product a complete form, smooth down his wet sponge and a piece of rubber, after which a thin wire or string of a cut with a Potter's wheel and put the drying - most often in the air. Up to 19-20 % humidity product establish the center of the upper circle, attaching a piece of clay, and reformats the relevant instruments; grinds a metal hook, smooth down a wet sponge, Polish plexiglass. If the product consists of several parts, they are glued. Next is the decorating.

4.5 Casting in plaster moulds based on the ability of gypsum absorb moisture. Liquefied clay mass, the so-called slip, pour in a plaster form, moisture absorbed and after some time the walls of the mold is formed even layer of clay. Weight gradually hardens, the dimensions of the product to be cast reduced and the resulting cake mix easily separated from the form. These products are of friable and give greater shrinkage.

4.6 The next stage in the production of ceramics is drying. In freshly molded product contains from 22 up to 30 % moisture - depending on the method of formation. The drying process at different structures of the mass passes differently: than fatter clay, the longer it is dried. When unequal density crock shrinkage is uneven, leading to the emergence of cracks and deformation. The form of the product is also of importance: the larger the size, the faster it dries. During the drying should not be draughts. First, the product is pre-drying, with 19 % moisture content - decorated, and then comes the final drying.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Part V

Ceramics of the Urals

5.1 The Perm State Arts Gallery is one of the most important and big Museums in the Ural region. The Gallery’s collection counts about 43.000 items including those belonging to national and Western European artistic schools, styles and trends of XV-XXI centuries.  Lovers of arts may find here paintings, drawings, pieces of sculpture, ornamental, decorated and applied pieces of arts, as well as folk-made ones. Collections include Ancient Greek and Egyptian ceramics, Tibetan bronze, samples of applied arts from Japan, India and China. The Perm State Arts Gallery was open in 1922. Today it takes a place within the precincts of the former Savior’s Transfiguration Cathedral, which itself is a piece of arts, a monument of architecture of the XIX century.

5.2 Brothers, Thomas and Isaac Stahl revived Stahl’s Pottery in the mid-1930s. They used the potting skills they had learned from their father, Charles Stahl, in the late nineteenth century. Charles Stahl’s pottery site was located along the Indian Creek in the village of Powder Valley, Pennsylvania.The Stahl brothers produced both utilitarian and decorative redware pottery from the years, 1934 until 1950.“Redware” pottery was named for the distinctive color produced from local sources of clay.Artist Carrie Stahl Schultz, Thomas’ daughter, decorated many of the sgraffito plates made by Thomas and Isaac. Russell Stahl, apprenticed as a potter under his Father, Isaac. After 1950, Russell ran the pottery and fired the kiln for the last time in 1956.

5.3 Front of the candy store, on the crossroads of Ulitsa Oktyabrskaya and Ulitsa Lenina, you can see a small pottery shop. Here you can buy crafts made of stone, wood, willow, birch bark, textiles and Kungur ceramics, which are famous all over Russia.Many of these exponate end up in different regions of Russia and the master who build them are participating to different fairs or exhibitions.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Part VI

Changes to the "Willow Pattern"

The term "Willow" is applied in a general way to many of the copies of the blue-and-white porcelain imported into England from China during the last half of the eighteenth century,  Since the improvement of British pottery the trade with China naturally ceased.