Semantic and stylistic aspect of euphemisms in modern english

       Cognitive model of an euphemistic formation is based on the interaction of two structures of knowledge:

1. Cognitive structure of a source domain
2. Cognitive structure of a target domain

       In the process of euphemization some target areas are groupped. This process is called euphemistic mapping. The hypothesis that the source domain is reflected and repeated again in the target domain is called invariant hypothesis. These projections are found at sentence and text levels.

       We should pay attention to the idea of passiveness and dependence, which itself is a part of the cognitive structure "herd". We know a herd is governed by a cowboy.

       The process of euphemization through the idea of cognitive euphemisms gives the explanation of the process on the whole, but there's no clear-cut answer in detail to explain the process of interaction of the source domain and the target domain. No language has been worked out to explain formal procedures of transformation of the language. The problem isn't in the description but how to present the information in the source and target domains which tend to be different.

       According to Zabotkina’s theory "euphemisms give us a chance to understand very abstract things through structurally organized things at another level" [24, p. 87]. His theory of a linear direction of euphemistic mapping caused a lot of talks. It's not true to life. In thepolitical discourse politics is conceptualized as a member of a family in the euphemisms "a family free" and it doesn't meet the requirement of a linear direction of euphemistic mapping. Very often the target domain isn't clear-cut, it doesn't need any changes in the structure but it needs reconsideration. The target domain may be changed semantically in a short or longer period of time. The time is mentioned because on the lexical and semantic levels we must use different grammatical structures, stylistic meanings, and the vocabulary. But in the majority of cases the core of the euphemistic system brings into life euphemisms with a linear direction of euphemistic mapping. One and the most important function of euphemisms is getting a new knowledge or cognitive functions.

       The area of the source domain contains: generalized experience about the men's world of the universe. Knowledge in the area of source domain is organized in the forms of image-schemas. They are basic and simple, regularly, physically reproduced in the process of a human's physical interaction with the real life.

       These schemes are: "container", "balance", "way", "up-down", "forward-backward", "a part and the whole". Very stable correlations between the source and target domains are fixed up in the language means and cultural traditions of the given society. They are called conceptual euphemisms. To them people in Europe refer such metaphorical protections as: "time is money", "life is travel", "quarrel is war". Cognitive euphemisms which are stable form cognitive models. They are cognitive categories and thus belong to the sphere of cognitive psychology.

       What is euphemistic mapping from a formal point of view? it has the function to reflect the elements of source domain and bring them to the target domain. We speak of the departure area and the area of destination. The stability of correlation between these two areas varies from a lesser stable in alive and new euphemisms up to dead metaphors found in stable correlations between the two areas.

       When we start to examine language means in these areas we see they are not complicated but simple. The linear direction of euphemistic models comes to the place of destination, to the target domain. There elements which constitute the target domain are very complicated. This projection doesn't bring simplicity but complexicity.

       Different euphemistic consequences and interpretations in the context vary.

       But within one context it is easy. But it is not the case when we find a number of themes in the source domain. For example when a politician is likened to Fox Alice, then through euphemistic projection we establish the connection between "a fox" in the source domain "animals" and "politician" in the target domain. Secondly we establish euphemistic projection between Fox Alice in the source domain as a literary character and the correlated word "politician" in the target domain.  

       3.4 Differences of euphemistic projection in image schemes and newly nominated euphemisms 

       1)The category of cognitive metaphor is very close to the metaphorical model of image-scheme. Image schemes are the component parts of the correlated euphemistic  models.

       2)The second peculiarity and difference lies in different ways of the presentation of knowledge.

       In literature image schemes are connected on the cognitive level, also on euphemistic consequences. Image schemes are cognitive structures, so to say structurally packed knowledge of the world. How are they presented? A familiar way is through the knowledge in our heads. Euphemistic models unite a great number of image schemes in one and the same conceptual field - semantic field.

       Euphemistic projection of "euphemisms naming death and everything connected with it " in our heads includes such components as: “to breath one’s last (one’s last breath, gasp)”, “to depart this life”, “to pay one’s debt to nature”, “to go to one’s last home”, “to go the way of all flesh”, “to kick the bucket”, “to hop the twig”, “to join the majority”, “to be no more”, “God’s acre”, etc.

       3)Image-schemas are independent and form cognitive models which are applied to a certain situation euphemistic model is global in its content, connected with other euphemistic models. This can be found in the tree. Each euphemistic model is characterized by various paradigmatic relations with other models, as some models are the constituent parts of a larger euphemistic models. Example " euphemisms naming death and everything connected with it " - is the constituent part of the euphemistic model " religious and moral factors are the driving forces of this group of phraseological euphemisms; fear before death and, sometimes, the desire not to hurt a person, to show one’s tact and courtesy can be considered to be the emotional basis of such phraseological euphemisms. This group of phraseological euphemisms is rather numerous".

       4)The fourth difference lies in the fact that euphemistic model in a greater degree is connected with language meant. On the contrary cognitive structures of image- schemes may not be verbalized at all. In a way we may say that an image-schema is more cognitive than euphemistic model. Euphemistic model makes use of the vocabulary to fix euphemistic process on paper.

       5)There is one more difference between image - schemas and euphemistic models. Image - schemas as cognitive structure appears on the basis of physical interaction of a man with the real world. It is the life experience of a man's body but not his social experience. Difference lies in the fact that a great number of euphemistic models are not based on the linear direction of euphemistic projections. They are different from this statement. For example, such euphemistic models as literature, medicine, religion, mythology, theater, play drop out of the image - schemes, through euphemistic models are widely used.

       It is very important to focus our attention on the process of euphemistic mapping from the source domain to target domain. The interpretation of this mapping establishes various reflections of euphemistic models.

       The source and target domains may be loaded hard. The more loaded the target domain is the more potential it has. It is possible to count how many denotative descriptors come out to one significant descriptor. Euphemistic model of "mechanism" was met in "the political discourse 1904 times. It means that one significant descriptor "mechanism" was used in 2 different descriptions of political economical life. This euphemistic model has a great potential in the interpretation of political events.

       6)Euphemistic model is characterized by the stability of denotative projections in our real life, it's very important to recognize conceptual euphemisms which define our perception of the world at a definite time and culture. 

       3.5 The psychological aspect of studying euphemisms & dysphemisms 

       Introduction euphemisms and dysphemisms is better to do with the defining terms "euphemism" and "dysphemism". "A euphemism is used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either one's own face or, through giving offence, that of the audience, or some third party". Euphemism is a word or an expression that people use instead of indecent, indelicate, rude, too direct or impolite words and expressions. The opposite sides of euphemisms are taboo words and dysphemisms. "A dysphemism is an expression with connotations that are offensive either about the denotatum or to the audience, or both, and it is substituted for a neutral or euphemistic expression for just that reason". It is important to say that euphemisms are opposed with taboo words because of cause and effect relations. Dysphemisms are opposed with euphemisms because of the evaluation content basis. The function of dysphemisms is to aggravate a denotatum with any evaluation content at the expense of more negative one.

       A dysphemism is a word or an expression that is generally used to offend somebody deliberately. It paints a negative picture without seemingly lying. For example the phrase "My boss is something else" doesn't carry something swearing bit it is slanted towards negativity.

       What is actually considered to be euphemistic and what is considered to be dysphemistic depends on the speaker and the way he or she interprets the message. At the same time a euphemism may loose its ennobling characteristics and turn into a dysphemism and it is required to be replaced. For example, the word "black" was a euphemism for the word with a negative connotation "negro". But the frequent using the word "black" as a euphemism had deleted its meaning and has transferred the word "black" to the category of the direct names.

       The psychological aspect pays attention to "straight to the generating motives" [37, p. 61].

       In lexicology the studying of euphemisms and dysphemisms from the psychological point of view is well-done. At present according to the generating motives there are five groups of euphemisms that have appeared because of: 1) superstition, 2) the feeling of fear, 3) sympathy and compassion, 4) the feeling of shame and, 5) the feeling of politeness.

       To V. I. Zabotkina's opinion some pragmatic reasons are the base of the generating motives. At first, it is a politeness, which has defined the creation of euphemisms for physical and mental defects. Secondly, taboo words, when euphemisms were used instead of direct names of diseases and deaths. Thirdly, it's the influence the general readers. Fourthly, it's restricness, which has influenced the creation of euphemisms within the different social illegal groups [23, p. 68-72].

       According to А. M. Kacev's classification of generating motives there are three emotional spheres: fear, odium and shame [25, p. 67].

       Linguists say these or those emotions are generating motives for the creation both euphemisms and dysphemisms. And perhaps the development of nominations with pejorative evaluation content was the base of making dysphemisms.

       At present this kind of words gets into high level of vocabulary. Using words with negative meaning and invectives the speaker feels the magic influence that he or she is everything allowed. The domination of such words is a natural thing because people perceive negative sides of life more violent than positive ones. The latter is regarded as normal and that is why they are less emotive. Of course it is easier to hold somebody up to shame than to praise somebody to the skies. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

        CONCLUSION 

       Our objective conceptual world is realized through our  local conceptual world. It is reflected with the help of different language means. The choice of words that we exchange in the intercourse depends much on the specific situation, our up-bringing, social position, education, cultural traditions, gender, age. Many euphemisms are so funny that many people laugh at them. They sometimes are called “white washing device”, because every euphemisms calls up a definite synonym in the mind of the reader or listener. Euphemisms have very serious reasons for being, because they conceal the things people fear the most – death, the supernatural. Thus, euphemisms are society’s basic language. Euphemisms are beloved by individuals and institutions who are anxious to present only the possible images of themselves to the world. A euphemisms may acquire unpleasant associations. In political and military language euphemisms are often used to conceal or deceive:

1. industrial strike was called the final solution
2. police action for war
3. armed reconnaissance for bombing

       When a phrase is used as a euphemism it becomes a metaphor whose literal meaning is dropped. They are used to hide disturbing ideas even when the literal term for them isn’t necessary offensive. The type of euphemisms used in public relations and politics is called doublespeak. Sometimes using euphemisms is equaled to politeness. There are euphemisms which are based on the idea that words have the power to bring bad fortune (for example, not speaking the word “cancer”), there are religious euphemisms, based on the idea that some words are sacred, that some words are spiritually imperiling (taboo). All cultures use them to talk about the things they find terrifying (e. g., war, sickness, death). We use euphemisms to express taboos as we feel on the instinctual level that the euphemism keeps us at safe distance from the taboo itself. Another use of euphemisms is to elevateу the status of something (e. g., using educator for a teacher, attorney for a lawyer), we use euphemisms to express what is socially difficult to express in direct forms.

       Periphrasis is a basic means of euphemistic formation. They are formed by altering the pronunciation or spelling of a taboo word. In American English words which are unacceptable on TV may be represented by deformations such as frenk even in children’s cartoons instead of fuck. Military and large corporations work out a lot of euphemisms of a more deliberate nature. Organizations coin doublespeak expressions to describe actions that seem neutral and inoffensive. Military organizations may kill people sometimes deliberately sometimes by mistake in doublespeak, the first is called neutralizing the target, the second is called collateral damage abortion originally meant premature birth. The meaning of term “abort” was extended to mean any kind of premature ending, such as aborting the launch of a rocket. Abortion came to mean induced abortion or elective abortion. A great number of euphemisms in English came from Latin roots.

       The opposite sides of euphemisms are taboo words and dysphemisms. Dysphemism is an expression with connotations that are offensive. They are opposed to euphemisms because of content. The function of dysphemism is to aggravate the denotatum with the meaning which is more negative. They are used to offend somebody deliberately.

       The motives of appearance of euphemisms:

1. superstition;
2. the feeling of fear;
3. sympathy and compassion;
4. the feeling of shame;
5. the feeling of politeness.

       The formation of new nominations with euphemisms are based on 3 emotional sphere:

1. fear;
2. odium;
3. shame.

       Euphemisms and dysphemisms get pejorative evaluation.

       Psychological aspect of the study euphemisms and dysphemisms explains domination of euphemisms and dysphemisms in the active vocabulary. These words get into high level of the vocabulary. Using words with negative meaning, euphemisms and dysphemisms with pejorative evaluation makes the speaker feel their magic influence and that he or she is everything allowed. Very narrow local world view of a man makes negative sides of life more dominating than positive ones.

       Classification of euphemistic mapping on the thematic principle divide them into different categories:

1. terms of foreign and technical origin ( copulation, security breach)
2. abbreviation (SOB for son of a bitch), abbreviation in clinical settings ( PITA for “pain in the ass” patient)
3. indirections (behind, privates, unmentionable)
4. mispronunciation (goldarnit)
5. cases with litotes or reserved understatement (not exactly thin for fat, not completely truthful for lied)
6. changing nouns to modifiers(right – wing element for “Right Wing”)

       Appendix A includes 97 words with synonyms and their euphemistic variants.

       Appendix B demonstrates examples of euphemisms and dysphemisms which appeared and based on the feeling of politeness and impoliteness, the feeling of shame, the feeling of fear, the feeling of compassion and sympathy. So we get extremely negative and offensive dysphemisms opposed to euphemisms which sound milder and contain a number of synonyms. Religious euphemisms date back to very early written records in Christian, Egyptian and Jewish religious rituals. Protection of sacred names has always given rise to euphemisms.  
 
 
 
 

 

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