Английский транспорт

TRANSPORT IN USA

COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORT

     The vast network of rivers and lakes in the eastern part of the United States has been of great importance to the economic development of the nation. The Mississippi and its tributaries are all easily navigable and the five Great Lakes, four of which are shared with Canada, are linked to this system by a series of canals. These waterways, together with pipelines and railways, are important for the transport of bulk freight.

     There is now a vast railway network extending over almost the entire country. Railway transport has been largely replaced by air transport for long-distance passenger travel, as there is a highly developed network of airline services connecting most towns of importance (and it costs less to travel by air than by train even on comparatively short journeys). Railways are still important for the carriage of certain types of freight, however.

     Cars and trucks are the most important means of transport for both passengers and goods, and an interstate highway system has been built which provides a route to nearly every major city. On many of these roads a toll has to be paid and the top speed limit anywhere is 55 miles per hour.  

FROM THE HISTORY OF TRAVEL

     Americans are a restless people, always on the move and eager to get where they are going as quickly and conveniently as possible. It was not until well after the Revolution, however, with the need for opening up the lands to the West, that the Nation began to develop an integrated system for transporting people and goods.

     For most of the first century of settlement, westward travel was limited to the winding Indian trails, which in a few places were widened to make primitive roads. Only the venturesome hunters and trappers pushed into the heavily forested mountains.

     On the water it was a different story; the rivers, inlets, and bays provided the easiest and safest means of transportation. Farmers floated their produce — wheat, corn, salted pork, logs, cotton, and tobacco — downriver to market on flatboats and rafts. Small boats and log canoes carried people to church and on visits to neighbours or to market. Many New Englanders gave up cultivating their rocky lands and turned to the sea in sturdy fishing boats to harvest the haddock and cod. Merchants, trader and passengers traveled between Boston, New York, and Baltimore by boat.

     Land travel increased slowly in the early 1700s. A horseback trip from New York to Boston took at least 7 days. As more Indian trails were widened into rough dirt roads, vehicles began to appear. By the mid-1700s four- and six-horse carriages with coachmen were common among the prosperous Virginia planters.

     The concept of using Federal funds to build interregional roads was established in 1806 under President Jefferson, and the so called National Road, which eventually linked Maryland with Illinois, was began in 1811. The transcontinental railroad, finished in 1869, linked the two oceans and unified the continent. So, by the late 1890s, it was already possible to travel from the Atlantic Coast to the Pacific Coast by rail.

     Although Americans did not invent that mechanical marvel, the automobile, they made it their own by finding ways to build it, improve it, mass-produce it, and sell it. Speed and movement soon became national obsessions.

     The Wright brothers made their historic flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, some 5 years before Henry Ford built his first "Model T" in 1908, but it took World Wars I and II to accelerate the evolution of the airplane.

     When all the technical challenges of travel on and around the Earth had been met, a new breed of traveler shot for the Moon, and made it. Since the first Apollo Moon landing on July 20, 1969, Americans have sent men to the Moon five times. And scientists, no longer earth-bound, have lived and worked for weeks aboard American Skylabs orbiting high above the Earth.

     But though time and distance have been conquered, solutions to the more difficult problems of safe, clean, comfortable travel still lie ahead.  

WHEELS FOR ALL MANKIND

In many ways the tale of Henry Ford and the product associated with his name is a microcosm of American economic history — a story of trial and error, of innovation and ultimate success.

     A farmer with a penchant for mechanical things, the young Ford quit school at 17, began building small steam engines, and j drove his first bicycle-wheeled, engine-driven device in 1896.

     It was a primitive affair, much simpler than cars already on the roads in Europe, and it was not until 1901 that the stubborn tinker, after several false starts, got enough financial support to start the Henry Ford Automobile Company. Financial disputes arose and Ford left. Two years later, with new backers, he established the Ford Motor Company. (When in 1919 Ford bought all outstanding shares, original investors reaped heavy rewards; a share that cost $100 was then worth $260000.)

     Ford was convinced that he could produce a good car at a reasonable price, and on October 1, 1908, he realized his dream with the unveiling of the Ford Model T. This was a straightforward, sturdy machine made of the best metals young Henry could obtain and propelled by a single 4-cylinder, 22-horsepower, 167-cubic-inch engine. As early as 1913, his company was able to produce an astonishing 1000 Ts per day.

     The T was an instant success and within months was outselling other American cars combined. What is more, Ford made good his pledge to reduce the T's price. From $850 in 1909, the price dropped steadily to $260 for some models by. 1924. By then, however, other manufacturers' inexpensive cars with better methods of changing gears and more speed were outperforming the T on America's improved roads.

     Recognizing this, Ford and his engineers went to work, and in late 1927 they were ready with the company's second breakthrough — the Model A. The car caught America's imagination, and like its predecessor, the Model T, was an instant success. There was nothing revolutionary about the engine, but the car's classical good looks and sturdiness endeared it to millions. Today the Model A Restorers Club has thousands of members, who proudly drive their prizes.

     So in the 1920s, the car people called a "baby Lincoln" took America by storm. Some 4,5 million Model A's were built in 5 years, and even the most expensive version sold for under $600.

     But times were changing. The Detroit manufacturers realized that the mass market was not only growing but would buy a wide variety of cars. This trend was encouraged by General Motors, which began to make annual model changes, supported by intensive advertising campaigns. The Detroit design syndrome was soon established. Each year the new models had to be sufficiently different from the ones before, to set them clearly apart (so that one's neighbours would be sure to know that a car was new); yet it could not be so drastically changed as to put it out of character with previous models.

     Today the Big Three — General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler — manufacture many different products. But the automotive industry owes an enduring debt to a mechanical genius named Henry Ford, the man who first put Americans on wheels.

           «The Ford Motor Company was launched in a converted factory in 1903 with $28,000 in cash from twelve investors, most notably John and Horace Dodge (who would later found their own car company). Henry's first attempt under his name was the Henry Ford Company on November 3, 1901, which became the Cadillac Motor Company on August 22, 1902. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at its factory on Mack Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on each car from components made to order by other companies. Henry Ford was 40 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company, which would go on to become one of the world's largest and most profitable companies, as well as being one to survive the Great Depression. As one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world, the Ford Motor Company has been in continuous family control for over 100 years.»

     he Ford Motor Company (NYSE: F) is an American multinational corporation based in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. The automaker was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. In addition to the Ford, Lincoln, and Mercury brands, Ford also owns a small stake in Mazda in Japan and Aston Martin in the UK. Ford's former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover were sold to Tata Motors of India in March 2008. In 2010 Ford sold Volvo to Geely Automobile.Ford will discontinue the Mercury brand at the end of 2010.

     Ford introduced methods for large-scale manufacturing of cars and large-scale management of an industrial workforce using elaborately engineered manufacturing sequences typified by moving assembly lines. Henry Ford's methods came to be known around the world as Fordism by 1914.

     Ford is currently the second largest automaker in the U.S. and the fourth-largest in the world based on number of vehicles sold annually, directly behind Volkswagen Group. In 2007, Ford fell from second to third in US annual vehicle sales for the first time in 56 years, behind only General Motors and Toyota. However, Ford occasionally outsells Toyota in shorter periods (most recently, during the summer months of 2009). By the end of 2009, Ford was the third largest automaker in Europe (behind Volkswagen and PSA Peugeot Citroën).Ford is the seventh-ranked overall American-based company in the 2008 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2008 of $146.3 billion. In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants and facilities worldwide. During the automotive crisis, Ford's worldwide unit volume dropped to 4.817 million in 2009. Despite the adverse conditions, Ford ended 2009 with a net profit of $2.7 billion. Starting in 2007, Ford received more initial quality survey awards from J. D. Power and Associates than any other automaker. Five of Ford's vehicles ranked at the top of their categories and fourteen vehicles ranked in the top three.

 

ТРАНСПОРТ В США

КОММУНИКАЦИИ  И ТРАНСПОРТ

     Обширная  сеть рек и озер в восточной  части Соединенных Штатов была очень  важна к экономическому развитию нации. Миссиссипи и его данники  все легко судоходны и эти  пять Великих озер, четыре из которых  разделены с Канадой, связаны с этой системой рядом каналов. Эти водные пути, вместе с трубопроводами и железными дорогами, являются важными для транспорта насыпного груза.

     Есть  теперь обширная железнодорожная сеть, простирающаяся законченный почти  вся страна. Железнодорожный транспорт был в значительной степени заменен воздушным транспортом для дальнего пассажирского путешествия, поскольку есть высоко развитая сеть услуг авиалинии, соединяющих большинство важных городов (и это стоит меньше, чтобы поехать воздушным путем чем поездом даже на сравнительно коротких поездках). Железные дороги все еще важны для вагона определенных типов фрахта, как бы то ни было.

     Автомобили  и грузовики - самые важные средства транспорта и для пассажиров и  для товаров, и система автомагистрали между штатами была построена, который обеспечивает маршрут к почти каждому главному городу. На многих из этих дорог нужно заплатить потери, и главное ограничение скорости где-нибудь - 55 миль в час.  

ОТ ИСТОРИИ  ПУТЕШЕСТВИЯ

     Американцы - беспокойные люди, всегда в движении и нетерпеливый добраться, куда они идут так быстро и удобно насколько возможно. Только когда много позже того, как Революции, однако, с потребностью в том, чтобы открывать страны на Запад, что Нация начала развивать интегрированную систему для того, чтобы транспортировать людей и товары.

     В течение большинства первого  столетия урегулирования, движущееся на запад путешествие было ограничено вьющимися индийскими следами, которые  в нескольких местах были расширены, чтобы сделать примитивные дороги. Только рискованные охотники и ловцы, выдвинутые в тяжело засаженные деревьями горы.

     На  воде это была различная история; реки, входные отверстия, и заливы обеспечили самые легкие и самые  безопасные средства транспортировки. Фермеры пустили в ход их произвести - пшеница, зерно, соленая свинина, регистрации, хлопок, и табак - вниз по реке на рынок на плоскодонных лодках и плотах. Маленькие лодки и регистрация плывут на каноэ несшие люди к церкви и на посещениях соседей или на рынок. Много Новых Englanders бросили выращивать их скалистые страны и поворачивались к морю в крепких рыбацких лодках, чтобы собрать пикшу и треску. Торговцы, торговец и пассажиры путешествовали между Бостоном, Нью-Йорком, и Балтимором лодкой.

     Путешествие земли увеличилось медленно в начале 1700-ых. Верхом поездка от Нью-Йорка до Бостона взяла по крайней мере 7 дней. Поскольку больше индийских следов было расширено в грубые грунтовые дороги, транспортные средства начали появляться. К середине 1700-ых четыре - и вагонам с шестью лошадями с извозчиками были обычными среди преуспевающих плантаторов Вирджинии.

     Понятие использования Федерального капитала, чтобы строить межрегиональные  дороги было установлено в 1806 при  президенте Джефферсоне, и так называемая Национальная Дорога, которая в конечном счете связала Штат Мэриленд с Иллинойсом, была, начался в 1811. Трансконтинентальная железная дорога, законченная в 1869, связала эти два океана и объединила континент. Так, к концу 1890-ых, было уже возможно поехать от Атлантического Побережья до Тихоокеанского побережья по железной дороге.

     Хотя  американцы не изобретали то механическое чудо, автомобиль, они сделали это  их собственным, находя способы строить  это, улучшать это, выпускать серийно  это, и продавать это. Скорость и  движение скоро стали национальными навязчивыми идеями.

     Братья  Мастера сделали их исторический полет в Ястребе Китти, Северной Каролине, приблизительно за 5 лет до Генри Форд строил его первую "Модель T" в 1908, но требуется Мировые войны I и II, чтобы ускорить развитие самолета.

     Когда все технические вызовы путешествия  на и вокруг Земли были встречены, новая порода выстрела путешественника  для Луны, и сделаны этим. Начиная  с первой Посадки на Луну Аполлона 20 июля 1969, американцы послали мужчинам на Луну пять раз. И ученые, больше земные, жили и работали в течение многих недель на борту американского Skylabs, двигущегося по кругу высоко над Землей.

     Но  хотя время и расстояние были завоеваны, решения более трудных проблем  сейфа, чистое, удобное путешествие  все еще располагается впереди.  

КОЛЕСА  ДЛЯ ВСЕГО ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСТВА

Разными способами  рассказ Генри Форд и продукт  связался с его зовут микромиром американской экономической истории - история испытания и ошибки, новшества и окончательного успеха.

     Фермер  со склонностью к механическим вещам, молодой Форд оставлял школу в 17, начал строить маленькие паровые двигатели, и j вел его первое колесное велосипедом, машинное-управляемое устройство в 1896.

     Это было примитивное дело, намного более  простое чем автомобили уже на дорогах в Европе, и только в 1901, упрямый ремесленник, после нескольких неудачных начал, заставил достаточную финансовую поддержку начинать Генри Компания Автомобиля Форда. Финансовые споры возникли и оставленный Форд. Два года спустя, с новыми покровителями, он установил Компанию по производству автомобилей Форда. (Когда в 1919 Форд купил все выдающиеся доли, оригинальные инвесторы пожинали тяжело награды; доля, которые стоили 100 $, тогда стоила 260000 $.)

     Форд  был убежден, что он мог произвести хороший автомобиль по разумной цене, и 1 октября 1908, он понял, что его мечта с обнародованием Форда Моделирует T. Это было прямой, крепкой машиной, сделанной из лучших металлов, которые молодой Генри мог получить и продвигал единственным 4 цилиндрами, 22 лошадиными силами, 167-cubic-inch двигатель. Уже 1913, его компания была в состоянии произвести удивительные 1000 Ts в день.

     T был мгновенным успехом, и в  течение месяцев превосходил  в цене другие американские  объединенные автомобили. Что является  больше, Форд, сделанный хорошим его залог уменьшить цену Та. От 850 $ в 1909, цена понизилась устойчиво к 260 $ для некоторых моделей. 1924. К тому времени, однако, недорогие автомобили других изготовителей с лучшими методами изменений скорости и большего количества скорости выигрывали у T на улучшенных дорогах Америки.