Автор работы: Пользователь скрыл имя, 28 Ноября 2014 в 16:36, контрольная работа
The subject of stylistics. Its definition, its connection with other branches of linguistics.
The word “stylistics” is a derivative from “style” which originates from the Latin “stylus/stilus”- a slender pointed writing instrument.
Stylistics - branch of general linguistics. It has mainly with two tasks: St-s – is regarded as a lang-ge science which deals with the results of the act of communication.
The answers on exam of Stylistics.
The word “stylistics” is a derivative from “style” which originates from the Latin “stylus/stilus”- a slender pointed writing instrument.
Stylistics - branch of general linguistics. It has mainly with two tasks: St-s – is regarded as a lang-ge science which deals with the results of the act of communication.
There are 2 basic objects of st-s: - stylistic devices and figures of speech; - functional styles.
Branches of st-s:
- Lexical st-s – studies functions of direct and figurative meanings, also the way contextual meaning of a word is realized in the text. L.S. deals with various types of connotations – expressive, evaluative, emotive; neologisms, dialectal words and their behavior in the text.
- Grammatical st-s – is subdivided into morphological and syntactical. Morph-l s. views stylistic potential of gram-l categories of dif-t parts of speech.
- Syntactical s. studies syntactic, expressive means, word order and word combinations, dif-t types of sentences and types of syntactic connections. Also deals with origin of the text, its division on the paragraphs, dialogs, direct and indirect speech, the connection of the sentences, types of sentences.
- Phonostylistics – phonetical organization of prose and poetic texts. Here are included rhythm, rhythmical structure, rhyme, alliteration, assonance and correlation of the sound form and meaning. Also studies deviation in normative pronunciation.
- Functional S (s. of decoding) – deals with all subdivisions of the language and its possible use (newspaper, colloquial style).
-Rhetorics as the science about the correctness, beauty and effectiveness of speech production is also connected with stylistics.
Finally, stylistics can be defined as a separate branch of linguistics that studies Ems and emotive potential of the language.
Its object - correlation of the message and communicative situation.
The expressive means of the language are registered in it can be found at all language levels. They are studied respectively in manuals of phonetics, grammar, morphology,
And lexicology as sounds and their combination, word meanings and word structures.
A stylistic device is conscious and intentional literary use of some of the facts of the language for further intensification or the logical emphasis contained in the expressive means.
There are 3 main styles of speech: neutral, colloquial, literary.
They possess certain layers of the voc.
Un the act of communication people may employ them to express their thoughts:
▲ Neutral – My father went away. Colloquial – My dad go out. Literary – My beloved parent retired. In linguistics different terms used to denote particular means of foregrounding of utterances were accepted: expressive of stylistic means, stylistic devices, stylistic markers, tropes, figures of speech. All of them are set against neutral once, because they carry some additional information. Purpose: logical and emotional intensification of the utterance (emotional coloring).
Phonetic expressive means refer pitch of the voice, stress, melody, intonation, and manner of speech (most powerful as the human voice can indicate a lot of nuances).
Morphological: derogatory (-er) and diminutive (-y) suffixes. ▲ Gangster.
Syntactical: inversion, broken sentences, elliptical.
Lexical: slang, vulgarisms, poetic words.
Word meaning:
Grammatical meaning: is the meaning that is referred to a certain grammatical form.
Lexical meaning: is referred to the phenomena of objective reality and the concept of the object or phenomena.
2 types of lexical meanings: denotative and connotative
And connotative has 4 meaning: logical, emotive, evaluative, stylistic
Prof. Galperin distinguished three types of lexical meaning – logical, emotive, and nominal, considering
Logical (1) meaning is a naming of an object or phenomenon by which we recognize the whole of the concept. Primary logical meaning is the one most frequently used, it begins the dictionary article of a word. Secondary logical meaning is the one derived from primary.
▲ He is the man of moderate opinions. “moderate” is realized in its secondary logical meaning derived from primary one. A word used in speech acquires an accidental meaning which should be included into semantic structure of the word it denotes – contextual (2) meaning. Difference between (1) and (2) the first one is materialized in the context, the second is born in the context.
Emotive: has reference to the emotions of the speaker towards things defined. 2 types of emotive > permanent, occasional.
Nominal meaning as the indication of a particular object out of a class.
A phoneme has a strong associative and sound-instrumenting power. Due to its articulatory and acoustic properties certain ideas, feelings, images are awaken. It’s vivid in poetry. Onomatopoeia (sound imitation) is a combination of speech sounds which imitate sounds produced in nature (wind) by things (tools), by people (laughing), by animals (barking).
▲ plink, plink, fizz.
Direct onomatopoeia: words which imitate natural sounds. ▲ buzz.
Indirect: combination of sounds which makes the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. ▲ Камыши шуршат в тиши.
Alliteration: repetition of similar consonant sounds in close succession. ▲ Functional, fashionable, formidable.
Assonance: repetition of similar vowel sounds, usually in stressed syllables. ▲ Grace, space,pace.
A phoneme has a strong associative and sound-instrumenting power. Due to its articulatory and acoustic properties certain ideas, feelings, images are awaken. It’s vivid in poetry. Euphony: produced by alliteration or assonance. Sense of ease and comfort in producing or hearing.
▲ Favors unused are favors abused. Euphony is created by the assonance of the vowels [ei, u:] and alliteration [zd] frequent in proverbs.
Rhyme: repetition of identical or similar terminal sounds or sound combinations in words. ▲ One, two, three, four, five. I caught a fish alive. Assonance of vowel [ai].
Rhythm: complex unit defined as a regular recurrence of stressed and unstressed syllables (strong and weak elements) which determine the meter in poetry or the measured flow of words in prose.
▲ One, two, three, four. Mary at the cottage door.
They include the use of punctuation, graphical arrangement of phrases, violation of type and spelling.
Marks of punctuation: hyphen, dash, comma, period (full-stop), colon, semicolon, exclamation, interrogation, series of dots.
They are used not only for the division of speech into its logical parts, but also for emphatic purposes which suggest a definite semantic interpretation of the utterance. ▲ Казнить, нельзя, помиловать. Another group of graphical means is based on the violation of type: italics, bold type, capitalization. Not only words but separate syllables, morphemes may be emphasized by italics (курсив). Spaced type is also included into this group of graphical means though it is not so frequent as italics. ▲ N o w! spaced letters are used for…
Graphical expressive means include the use of punctuation, graphical arrangement of phrases, violation of type and spelling.
Graphon: the intentional violation of the generally accepted spelling used to reflect peculiarities of pronunciation or emotional state of the speaker.
Types of graphon: multiplication, hyphenation, capitalization, apostrophe.
Functions: - to give the reader an idea about smth (level of education, emotional state, origin). – to attract attention. – to make smb memorize it. – to show smth, explain.
Graphical means are popular with advertisers. They individualize speech of the character or advertising slogan.
▲ A better stain getter.▲ How do you spell relief? R-O-L-I-P-S – to make reader / listener to remember it.
Metaphor is used to denote the transference of meaning from one word to another, and to designate the process in which a word acquires a derivative meaning.
Two phenomena of life are brought to mind by the imposition of some (or all) the properties of one object on the other, deprived of them.
Trite (fixed) – predictable, fixed in dictionaries.
▲ legs of the table; winter comes.
Genuine: (fresh) unique, unexpectable.
▲ The house was a white elephant but he couldn’t conceive of his father in a smaller place. - describes the size and enigma of the house.
Prolonged: if a sentence contains a group of metaphors; consists of principal and contributory images. Metaphors may be prolonged through a group of other lexical stylistic devices. Personification: attribution of personal nature or character to inanimate objects or abstract notions. A thing is presented as a human being.
▲ I’m the Daughter of Earth and Water.
Metonymy is based on some kind of association connecting the two concept which the dictionary and contextual meaning represent.
Trite (fixed) metonymy represents derivative logical meaning of a word and is fixed in dictionaries.
▲ Nothing comes between me and my Calvins (Calvin Klein Jeans).
Contextual m. – unexpected substitution of one word to another.
▲ She married into conversation > very talkative man.
Synecdoche – m. based on the relation between the part and the whole.
▲ He had five months to feed.
Irony: based on simultaneous relation of primary dictionary and contextual logical meanings of a words which stay in opposition to each other.
▲ It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.
It isn’t logical but evaluative meaning is foreground. It isn’t humor – not always make humorous effect but negative.
Epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meanings in an attributive word, emotionally colored attitude of the speaker to the object he describes. Semantic class:
1) associated with the noun it refers and
2) unassociated with it.
1 – refer the mind to the concept due to some quality of the object it is attached to.
▲ careful attention.
2 – attributes used to characterize the object by adding a feature unexpected in it.
▲ heart-burning smile.
Structurally:
Composition
1) simple 2) compound 3) phrase 4) sentence
ordinary adj. are built like is shown is shown by
▲rosy dreams. comp. adj. by phrase. sentence.
▲blue eyed girl ▲ The cat had don’t-
-you-touch-me-or-I’ll-kill
-you expression of his face.
Another structural variety of epithet is called reversed – two nouns liked in an of-phrase.
The evaluating, emotional element is in the noun described. ▲ A doll of the baby.
There are words with the function of arousing emotions in the reader. In such words emotiveness prevails over intellectuality. There are also words in which logical meanings is almost entirely lost.
These words express feelings which have passed trough out mind. Emotiveness is a category of our minds, feelings are expressed indirectly. That’s why it is natural that some emotive words have become symbols of emotions.
Interjections are words which we use to express our feelings strongly and which exist in language in the form of conventional symbols of human emotions.
Derivative interjections retain some degree of logical meaning suppressed by emotive one. ▲ Hush! Alas! Gosh!
These interjections had once their logical meanings and the shades of them are presented. Primary interjections. They don’t have logical meaning.
▲ Oh! Ah! Wow! There are neutral interjections (bah, oh) and colloquial ones (well). Exclamatory words – words that don’t lose their logical meaning and thus function as interjections.
▲ Heavens! Look out!
The word is the most changeable of all language units. In the result of the gradual development of the meaning of the word new meanings appear alongside the primary one – derivative meanings.
All of them are interconnected with the primary one and create a network – polysemantic effect.
Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being literal and transferred.
Zeugma always creates a humorous effect.
▲ Have a Coke and a smile! “Have” is realized in two different meanings: in the word combination “have a Coke” it’s direct (literal), in “have a smile” it’s transferred.
Pun – it has a humorous effect which may be based on misinterpretation of the speaker’s utterance by the other or by the result of the speaker’s intended violation of the listener’s expectation.
▲ When are true words – sweet words? When they are candid.
Pun is also a play on words of the same sound, it may be based on homonymy, polysemy.
Oxymoron is a combination of 2 words in which the meanings of the 2 clash, being opposite in sense.
▲ terribly beautiful.
One of the two members of oxymoron illuminates the feature observed while the other one offers a purely subjective individual perception of the object. In it the primary logical meaning of the adj. or adverb is capable of resisting the power of semantic change which words undergo in combination. It can be realized in several models: adj. + noun, adverb + adj.
Antonomasia is a stylistic device based on the interplay between the logical and nominal meanings of a word realized simultaneously. It has the purpose of pointing but the leading, most characteristic or important trait of the person or event, inning it as a proper name of this person or event.
Antonomasia categorizes the person and indicates both the general and the particular. It gives us information about the bearer of the name.
▲ Mr. Snake.
Antonomasia is mostly created by nouns, seldom by attributive combinations or phrases.
The feature of the object which is picked out seems unimportant and frequently transitory. But for a special reason it’s elevated to the greatest importance and made into a telling feature.
Simile: imaginative comparison of two unlike objects which belong to different classes.
It excludes all the properties of the compared objects except one which is made common to them.
▲ The girl is like a bird.
Trite simile points out the analogy between the human being and the animals which have stereotyped traits of character, states.
▲ As wet as a fish.
Hyperbole: is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature of a thing or phenomenon. If it is used frequently it may become trite hyperbole.
▲ I’ve told you thousand times!
Understatement: when the quality or quantity is underrated. It is deliberate underrating of a feature or property of an object. ▲ Мальчик-с-пальчик. It’s used in Britain in every-day speech as it symbolizes politeness
The feature of the object which is picked out seems unimportant and frequently transitory. But for a special reason it’s elevated to the greatest importance and made into a telling feature.
Periphrases: is a process which realizes the power of language to coin new names for objects by disclosing some quality of the object. Periphrases is the renaming of an object by a phrase that brings out some particular feature of this object.
▲ The ship of the desert – camel.
Language periphrases are trite as it is seen:
▲ He spoke as the father of the nation. Speech periphrases is understandable in a particular context, it is genuine.
Euphemism: a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a more acceptable one.
▲ golden-ager – an elderly person.
Dysphemism is quite opposite to euphemism.
▲ nipper – a young child. Euphemisms groups: 1) religious 2) moral 3) medical 4) parliamentary.
Inversion is certain changes in the word order of an utterance. It can by grammatical and stylistic. The first one involves the structure of the utterance. It’s a norm in interrogative constructions.
▲ He is leaving for London tomorrow morning. – Is he leaving for London tomorrow?
In this example no emphases is added, so it’s a grammatical inversion.
Stylistic inversion doesn’t change the structural meaning of an utterance it aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional coloring to the meaning of the utterance. ▲ In shabby shubra lived another people: to them, and them only he felt related. Detachment is a variety of stylistic inversion. It takes place when some secondary parts of the utterance are placed. So that they seem formally independent of words they logically refer to.
▲ You weren’t-ever-going to get out of this… not ever. Detachment of ever wit…
A parallel construction is the stylistic device which represents identical or similar syntactical structures in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence. Pure parallelism depends on the repetition of syntactical arrangement of the sentence.
▲ He was not comfortable. He was not happy. These 2 sentences have identical structure. Parallel construction may be complete (maintains the principle of identical structures in the corresponding sentence) and partial (based on the repetition of some parts of successive sentences).