Layers of vocabulary

Lecture 1

Stylistics as a linguistic discipline studies expressive and figurative means of the language inter-relations between the content and form of the text functional styles of the language.

The central category is functional style which can be characterized as a unity of language means chosen and arrangeв in such a way as to serve some particular purpose in the process of speech communication opposed to other such unities fulfilling

Stylistics is closely connected with all other branches of linguistics. Like lexicology it studies vocabulary, like grammar it analyses morphological forms and syntactic structures, like phonology – sounds and their combination. Unlike them it analyses only those lexical, grammar means that have stylistic coloring either in hearing or under certain contextual conditions.

Synonymy is relevant for the purpose of stylistic analysis because each time when we choose a language means that suits best our communication purposes out of a group of more or less similar ones.

Synonyms are language units partially similar in meaning but always having some differences to justify their simultaneous existence.

-ideographic

-stylistic

Ideographic – differ as to the shades of meaning.

to convince – to make smb. believe

to persuade – to make smb. do smth.

любити – кохати

злий, недобрий, лихий

Stylistic – differ as to the field of their usage or stylistic usage

to work – to drudge (пахать)

child - kid – infant

Synonyms are always relative, there are no absolute synonyms.

 

Layers of vocabulary (пласти лексики)

The majority of words can be characterized as neutral, can be used at every style, but alongside to such words there are always verbs and expressions that have style coloring even if it associated with the type they refer to.

 

Elevated words   Low words

archaisms    familiar colloquial

learned words   slang

foreign words   jargon

vulgarisms

 

Archaisms are words and expressions that are felt as obsolete.

knight, crossbow  slay - kill

бунгуч, кошовий  behold - see

ланiти – щоки  harken – listen, hear

Nowadays archaisms are used in religious texts, poetry, creating a humoristic effect.

Learned words are borrowed mostly from Latin and Greek, which have become assimilated in the language that borrowed but didn’t become colloquial.

criteria, assessment, formula

лицедій, персоніфікація

They can be found in all literary styles.

Foreign words are modern borrowings; they preserve often their native spelling and pronunciation.

tete-a-tete, versus, non grata

They can be found in particular documents, business.

Familiar colloquial have nothing rude or indecent (informal communication)

• abbreviated forms
• nouns with suffixes of subjective appraisal

kitchenette, booklet

хатинка, хлопчисько

• synonyms of neutral word

strom – husky

fellow – chap, lad

friend – buddy, pal

By slang we mean words or expressions mostly of humoristic character used to enlighten communication.

head – upper storey, brain pan

to confess – to crack

Slang is characteristic for all layers.

Jargon – words and expressions used by representatives of a certain profession to make the communication less formal.

руль – бублик

вертикальний  удар – свічка

ляп

лабух (музикант)

Cant (арго) is the jargon of the underworld (преступный мир).

Purpose: to make the content of a speech not comprehensive for outsiders.

cop, to crack

замочити

 

Lecture 2

Lexical vulgarisms are names of some objects, parts of human body, some actions, states, processes that aren’t discussed in polite society. If it’s still necessary to mention them, all kind of euphemisms are used.

Stylistic vulgarisms do not denote anything rude or indecent. It’s the vulgar character of the word that prevents them from being used by well-bread people.

money – pay dead

 

Figures of Speech

Figures of Quality

metaphoric group	metonymic group	mixed group
metaphor simile epithet personification	metonymy synecdoche	allegory antonomasia

 

Figures of Relations

relations of identity	relations of contrast	relations of inequality
synonymy euphemism periphrasis	irony antithesis oxymoron	climax (gradation) anticlimax hyperbole litotes

 

Figures of Quality

Metaphor is the transference of the name of one object to another on the base of imaginary similarity.

She is a flower of a girl.

Він перетворив моє  життя на пекло.

Simile is a comparison of two objects with the idea of giving expressive characteristic to one of them.

Her dress is white as snow.

Злий як собака. Хитрий як лис.

Epithet is a figurative attribute giving a characteristic of an object, phenomenon.

She gave me a sunny smile.

Чарівна дівчинка зайшла до кімнати.

Personification - ascribing human qualities to lifeless things.

Реве та стогне Дніпр широкий.

The moon was walking silently along the dark sky.

Metonymy is the transference of the name on the basis of a real connection between them (a connection between object and location)

The White House gave no answer.

Усі дівчата виглядали  чарівними у хутрі та діамантах.

Synecdoche – is the usage of the part for a whole, singular for plural, one object for a whole class of similar objects.

The blue coat was in my way.

Вовк належить до классу тварин.

Allegory is presenting a general or abstract idea through a concrete object or image.

The relationship what is meant and what is used may be either metaphoric or metonymic.

Metaphoric allegory:

As the tree falls so it will lie.

Не погань криницю, бо схочешь водиці.

Metonymic allegory:

An apple a day keeps doctors away.

Копійка гривню береже.

Співати з чужого голосу.

До чужого рота не приставиш ворота.

Antonomasia is a usage of a proper name for a common noun.

Metaphorical antonomasia uses the names of historical, mythological or literary characters or names of things and places to give a characteristic to some particular situation or person.

My husband is real Othello.

Це було його Ватерлоо.

Metonymical antonomasia uses the names of masters for their creations.

Я читав Шевченка.

На полиці в мене повний Коцюбинський.

Don’t use your Smith-and- Wesson…

 

Figures of Relations.

Figures of Relations are based on identity.

Synonymy – figures of speech a simultaneous usage of a few synonyms in context.

All these days she was troubled and depressed.

Вона була красивою, неперевершеною, чарівною дівчиною.

Euphemism – usage of a milder word or expression for a rude, indecent or just unpleasant ones.

To join the majority –  умереть

Он пороха не выдумает – глупый человек

Periphrasis – a description of the person, object or phenomena used instead of direct name and supply.

Туманный Альбион = Лондон

Великий Кобзар

By irony traditionally we mean the usage of words in meanings opposite to their customary acceptation.

It was clever of you to ask such silly question like this.

Така красива, така красива, що як подивиться у віконце,то потім собаки ще тиждень гавкають на те віконце.

Antithesis – a juxtaposition of two objects or ideas with the purpose of underlining dissimilarity.

Day and night. Black and white. Now or never.

Приведіть його мені живого або мертвого.

Oxymoron – an attribute ascribed to an object or phenomenon which is incompatible (несовместимый) with its nature.

Silent answer.

Живой труп, злейший  друг

Lecture 3

Climax is arranging a few ideas in such a way that each next one is stronger or more emotional that previous.

I’m so sorry. I’m extremely sorry.

Він загубив свою кар’єру, своє майбутнє,своє життя.

Anticlimax is arranging a few ideas in such a way that they fall of indignity or importance by the end.

She’s brave woman who would not afraid to face a devil or a mouse.

Всього не здобудеш, ані за любов, ані за гроші.

Hyperbole is a purposeful exaggeration.

Я мало не вмер, коли почув це.

I haven’t seen you for ages. I was frightened.

Litotes is a purposeful understatement when an idea is expressed by the negation of an opposite.

Він промовив це не без гумору.

He is not devoid of a sense of humor.

That was not a bad idea.

Ви були недалеко від істини.

 

The main grammatical means used as stylistic devices

Morphological stylistic devices

• word building
• conversion
• transposition
• occasionalisms

Word building means the usage of suffixes and prefixes having stylistic coloring.

doggy, booklet, kitchenette, superswindler, ultraegoist, extraliar

недобачати, величезний, хлоп’я, величущий (much larger in Ukrainian)

Conversion is usage one part of speech in the meaning of another part of speech.

water-to water

If given a chance she’ll oscarwilde all the British literature.

Місто часто переходило від білих до червоних та навпаки.

Ведуча цієї програми дуже відома глядачам.

Transposition is the usage of a grammatical form in the meaning of a different one.

Yesterday I come home and see the following picture…

I’m leaving in a minute.

Вона увійшла  до кімнати і ну лаятись.

Ми вирушаємо  за годину.

You’re not leaving the room without my permission.

Occasionalisms – new words coined by authors for the sake of expressiveness.

Looneyversity. Horrorscope.

Прихватизація.

Не дивися так  блакитно, яблуневоцвітно.

 

Syntactic stylistic devices.

They are represented by 5 groups (SSD)

1. SSD are based upon the absence of component which are logically and structurally necessary.

ellipses, aposiopesis, asyndeton, nominative sentence, zeugma

2. SSD are based upon the redundancy of elements

repetition (simple and framing), polysyndeton, emphatic structure, parenthesis

3. SSD is based upon the unusual word order

inversion

4. SSD is based upon interaction of neighboring structures

syntactic parallelism, chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora, anadiplosis

5. SSD is based upon unusual usage of syntactic structures

rhetorical questions, affirmation↔negation, reported speech

Ellipses omitting (опущение) or leering out elements of which are easily restored from a sentence context.

Ellipses acquired stylistic coloring when used by author with some particular purpose.

I went to Oxford as one goes on exile ship to London.

Він може повернутися  туди, я – ніколи.

Aposiopesis is breaking a sentence in the middle with a complete reservation of its meaning (without loosing meaning)

To ring me up at this time of night…

Розмовляти зі мною у такому тоні....

Asyndeton is leaving out a connecting element between clauses and sentences.

The man___ I wanted to see is at the next table.

Він не відповів нічого, слова були непотрібні.

He decided not to come back; no one was waiting for him.

Nominative sentence is a structure that has only one principal part the subject. It’s extensively used in all kind of description.

Miles and miles of hot sand. Maddening heat.

Ніч. Вулиця. Ліхтар. Аптека.

Zeugma is the usage of a word in the same grammatical relation for two or more words.

She treated her guests to tea and biscuits and gossips about neighbors.

Ішов дощ та 3 студенти.

Simple repetition is the usage of a word or expression a few times in simple sequence.

It was a happy, happy day.

Framing is the usage of the same lexical dement in the beginning or sense group.

Never wonder, settle everything somehow, and never wonder.

Не турбуйся, я  все зроблю як треба тож не турбуйся.

Polysyndeton is the repetition of a connected element.

She is very beautiful. And always very well dressed. And always in the best moods.

Вона була стурбованою  з самого ранку. То підбігала до віконця, то сідала на підвіконня.

Emphatic structure. There’re many ways to make word more emphatic.

It was at that moment that I understood everything.

Саме йому вона вдячна за своє визволення.

Parenthesis is making a group of words independent on the rest of the sentence with the idea of making them more conspicuous (заметный) giving an explanation or just breaking monotony of narration.