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Работа содержит ответы на вопросы по дисциплине "Английский язык".
1. Системная теория языка в изучении грамматического строя Language is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the process of human intercourse. Language incorporates the three constituent parts ("sides"), each being inherent in it by virtue of its social nature. These parts are the phonological system, the lexical system, the grammatical system. Each of the three constituent parts of language is studied by a particular linguistic discipline. Modern linguistics lays a special stress on the systemic character of language and all its constituent parts. It accentuates the idea that language is a system of signs (meaningful units) which are closely interconnected and interdependent. Units of immediate inter-dependencies (such as classes and subclasses of words, various subtypes of syntactic construction, etc.) form different microsystems (subsystems) within the framework of the global macrosystem (supersystem) of the whole of language. Each system is a structured set of elements related to one another by a common function. The common function of all the lingual signs is to give expression to human thoughts. The systemic nature of grammar is probably more evident than that of any other sphere of language, since grammar is responsible for the very organization of the informative content of utterances Due tothis fact, even the earliest grammatical treatises, within the cognitive limits of their times, disclosed some systemic features of the described material. But the scientifically sustained and consistent principles of systemic approach to language and its grammar were essentially developed in the linguistics of the twentieth century, namely, after the publication of the works by the Russian scholar Beaudoin de Courtenay and the Swiss scholar Ferdinand de Saussure. These two great men demonstrated the difference between lingual synchrony (coexistence of lingual elements) and di-achrony (different time-periods in the development of lingual elements as well as language as a whole) and defined language as a synchronic system of meaningful elements at any stage of its historical evolution 6. Традиционная классификация морфем The word is a nominative unit of lang, it is formed by morphemes, it is an elementary component of the lexicon of lang, togehter with other nominative units the word is used for the formation of the sentence. Types of morphemes (traditional classification) / \ root-morphemes (roots) affixal morphemes (affixes) The roots express concrete, ‘material’ part of the meaning of the word, while the affixes express specific additional part of the meaning of the w. The root is obligatory for any word. Distributional(distributional analysis studies the units of language in relation ot their textual environments or adjoinig elements in the txt) Distributional Types of morphemes 1) ‘free’ and ‘bound’ morphemes, distinguished on the basis of self-dependance. Bound morphemes can\t form | 2. subject matter of theoretical grammar. Language - is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the process of human intercourse. Language incorporates 3 constituent parts which form a unity. Phonological Lexical Grammatical systems The grammatical system is studied by Grammar. Grammar- is the structure of the language. All lang-s have grammar. Theoretical grammar is the science of the structure of the lang. It’s a part of the ling. theory & exists for those lang-s that have been theoretically investigated. Parts of grammar: morphology, syntax, phonology, semantics. 2 main aims of the course: 1) to provide a description of the gram. structure of the lang. as an organized system.2) to look analytically at the unit making a gram. struct. of English; to provide a critical review of the existing scientific theories, to give more systematic presentatin of English Grammar as such. Any linguistic description may have a practical or theoretical purpose. A practical description is aimed at providing the student with a manual of practical mastery of the corresponding part of language. Since the practice of lingual intercourse, however, can only be realized by employing language as a unity of all its constituent parts. As for theoretical linguistic descriptions, they pursue analytical aims and therefore present the studied parts of language in relative isolation, so as to gain insights into their inner structure and expose the intrinsic mechanisms of their functioning. Hence, the Aim of theoretical grammar of a language is to present a theoretical description of its grammatical system, i.e. to scientifically analyse and define its grammatical categories and study the mechanisms of grammatical formation of utterances out of words in the process of speech making. 6----------------------------- words by themselves, they are component segmental parts of words. Free morphemes can built up words Ex: handful:hand – free, full - bound 2) ‘overt’ and ‘covert’ morphemes, distinguished on the basis of formal presentation. Overt morphemes are genuine, explicit morphemes building up words; the covert morpheme is identified as a contrastive absence of morpheme expressing a certain function. the word-form clocks consists of two overt morphemes: one lexical (root) and one grammatical expressing the plural.The one-morpheme word-form clock, since it expresses the singular, is also considered as consisting of two morphemes, i.e. of the overt root and the covert grammatical suffix of the singular. 3) ‘Additive’ and ‘replacive’ morphemes, distinguished on the basis of grammatical alternation. Additive morphemes are outer grammatical suffixes Ex: look+ed . The root phonemes of grammatical interchange are considered as replacive morphemes, since they replace one another in the paradigmatic forms. Ex m-a-n m-e-n 4) ‘continuous’ (linear) and ‘discontinious’ morphemes are distinguished on the basis of leaner characteristic. By the discontinuous morpheme, opposed to the continuous morpheme, a two-element grammatical unit is meant which is identified in the analytical grammatical form comprising an auxiliary | 3. Syntagmatic & paradigmatic relations Syntagmatic relations – sequential relationships between the string of constituents in a construction, opposed to paradigmatic relations. Synt.rel.can be established at all levels of analysis. /p/ /i/ /t/ - pit the big car Syntagma – the combination of two words or word-groups 1 of which is modified by the other. There are 4 types of notional syntagmas: predicative (the combination of a subject and a predicate), objective (the combination of a verb and its object), attributive (the combination of a noun and its attribute), adverbial (the comb of a modified notional word, such as a verb, adj or adv with its adv modifier. Paradigm in grammar – is an ordered set of gram.forms expressing a certain function Paradigmatic relations – the set of substitutional relationships which a linguistic unit has with other units, in a specific contest, opposed to Synt relations. These relations can be established at all levels of analysis. Unlike synt relations, parad relations can’t be directly observed in the utterances. Paradig relations co-exist with synt r in such a way that some sort of synt connection is necessary for the realization of any parad series. This is evident in a classical gr paradigm which presents a series of forms each consisting of a syntagm connection of 2 elements: 1 common for the whole of the series (stem), the other specific for every individual form in the series (gr feature – inflextion, suffix) 5. Слово и морфема, статус в уровневой структуре языка Word – the articulate sound-symbol, the grammatically arranged combination of sounds with meaning, the minimal free linguistic form, the uninterrupted string of morphemes,the minimal potential sentence, the elementary component of the sentence. Lexeme – the minimal distinctive unit in the lexicon of lang. A lexeme may consist of more than 1 word. (ex. come up with) The word(lexeme), as different from the morpheme, is a directly naming unit of language: it names things, their relations. The word is a nominative unit of lang, it is formed by morphemes, it is an elementary component of the lexicon of lang, togehter with other nominative units the word is used for the formation of the sentence. Morphemic structure of a word The morpheme – elementary meaningful part of the word, formed by phonemes, so that the shortest morphemes include only 1 phoneme.( as a meaningful comp of the word it is elementary, i.e. indivisible into smaller segments) In studying the morpheme we actually study the word. Morphemes – abstract units, realized in speech or writing as discreet items (morphs) Allomorphs – morphemic variants cats /s/, dogs /z/, horses /iz/ Allo – any noticeable variation in the form of a linguistic unit, which doesn’t affect that unit’s functional identity. Allophones – the variant of a phoneme Allomorph – the variant of a morpheme I.Baudouin de Courtenay introduced the linguistic term phoneme to denote a speech sound that distinguishes meaning.
| . Сегментные уровни языка Units of language are divided into segmental and supra-segmental. Segm units consist of phonemes, they form phonemic strings of various status (syllanles, morphemes, words). Supra –segm units do not exist by themselves, but are realized together with segm units and express diff functions wich are reflected on the strings of segmental units. To the supra – segm units belong intonationa, accents, pauses, patterns of word-order. The segmental units of lang are divided into levels. Units of each level are characterized by their own specific features. The lowest level is phonemic. It is formed by phonemes as the material elements of higher level segments. The ph has no meaning conseq no sign. Defferientiate morphemes and words. Phonemes are combined into syllables. The syll is not a sign either. So there is no point in recognizing separate syllabic level. Units of higher level are meaningful. They can be called segnemes opposed to cortemes (units without meaning) The level above the phonemic is morphemic. The morpheme – elementary meaningful part of the word built up by phonemes. The third level is lexemic. The word(lexeme) names thing, their relations.The next level – phrasemic (comb of 2 or more notional words), have nomin function. The next level – denotemic. The phrasemic l can be presented as the upper sublevel of the denotemic level. Above this level the l of sentences is located, or proposemic level. Phonemic- morphemic- lexemic- phrasemic- denotemic- sentences 7. Понятие грамматической категории The most general notions reflecting the most general properties of phenomena are referred to in logic as "categorial notions", or "categories". The most general meanings rendered by language and expressed by systemic correlations of word-forms are interpreted in linguistics as categorial grammatical meanings. The forms themselves are identified within definite paradigmatic series. The categorial meaning (e.g. the grammatical number) unites the individual meanings of the correlated paradigmatic forms (e.g. singular-plural) and is exposed through them; hence, the meaning of the grammatical category and the meaning of the grammatical form are related to each other on the principle of the logical relation between the categorial and generic notions. As for the grammatical category itself, it presents the same as the grammatical "form", a unity of form (i.e. material factor) and meaning (i.c. idea) factor) and constitutes a certain signemic system. We have synthetical and analytical means to express grammatical meanings More specifically, the grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaning by means ofparadigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a categorial function constitutes a paradigm. The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are exposed by the so-called "grammatical oppositions". |
8.Оппозиционный анализ грамматических форм the grammatical category presents the same as the grammatical "form", a unity of form (i.e. material factor) and meaning (i.c. idea) factor) and constitutes a certain signemic system. More specifically, the grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaning by means ofparadigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a categorial function constitutes a paradigm. The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are exposed by the so-called "grammatical oppositions". Theory of markedness (oppositional theory) This notion was first developed in Prague school of linguistic as a phonolog cal theory (Trubetskoy, Jackobson) When 2 phonemes are distingueshed by the presence or absence of a single distinctive feature, one of them is said to be marked and the other unmarked for the feature in question Three main qualitative types of oppositions are,"privative"- consists of an unmarked and marked member(table-tables), "gradual" - distinguished by the degree of a distinctive feature,and"equipollent" – members are distinguished by different positive features. By the number of members contrasted, oppositions were divided into binary (two members) and more than binary (ternary, quaternary, etc.) The most important type of opposition is the binary privative opposition; the other types of oppositions are reducible to it. The binary privative opposition is formed by a contrastive pair of members in which one member is characterized by the presence of a certain differential feature ("mark"), while the other member is characterized by the absence of this feature. The member in which the feature is present is called the "marked", or "strong", member, the member in which the feature is absent is called I "unmarked", or "weak" member. (cat – weak, cats – strong) 10. Гр классы слов. 3 критерия выделения частей речи The words of language, depending on various formal and semantic features, are divided into grammatically relevant sets or classes. The traditional grammatical classes of words arе called "parts of speech'' In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of the three criteria: "semantic", "formal", and "functional". The semantic criterion presupposes the evaluation of the generalized meaning, which is characteristic of all the subsets of words constituting a given part of speech. This meaning is understood as the 'categorial meaning of the part of speech". The formal criterion provides for the exposition of the specific inflexional and derivational (word-building) features of all the lexemic subsets of a part of speech. The functional criterion concerns the syntactic role of words in the sentence typical of a part of speech. The said three factors of categorial characterization of words are conventionally referred to as, respectively, "meaning", "form", and "function". | 9. Синтетич и аналит ср-ва в грам строе There are several types of form-building in English. The main subdivision of form-building types is into synthetical and analytical. In a synthetical type a grammatical meaning is expressed within a word, in an analytical type a grammatical meaning is expressed with the help of auxiliary words (plus suffixes). Synthetical grammatical forms are based on inner inflexion, outer inflexion, and suppletivity. Inner inflexion, or phonemic (vowel) interchange, is not productive in modern Indo-European languages. Inner inflexion (grammatical "infixalion", see above) is used in English in irregular verbs and in a few nouns for the formation of the plural. Suppletivity, like inner inflexion, is not productive as a purely morphological type of form. It is based on the correlation of different roots as a means of paradigmatic differentiation. In other words, it consists in the grammatical interchange of word roots (be-was) The shown unproductive synthetical means of English morphology are outbalanced by the productive means of affixation (outer inflexion). These are used to build up the number and case forms of the noun; the person-number, tense, participial and gerundial forms of the verb; the comparison forms of the adjective and adverb The traditional view of the analytical morphological form recognizes two lexemic parts in it, stating that it presents a combination of an auxiliary word with a basic word. The analytical type of form-building occupies a very important place in the grammatical structure of English as the language has evolutionized from being mainly synthetical to becoming more and more analytical, and analytical tendencies in the present day English are very strong. There exist the so-called half-analytical structures and the analytical tendencies find their reflection in many spheres of the language. 10---------------------------- the nominal parts of speech – are words of complete nominative meaning that have selfdependent functions in the sentence. The functional parts of speech –are unchangeable words of incomplete nominal meaning that don’t have selfdependent functions in the sentence. Their number is limited(the article, the particle, the conjunction, the preposition, the interjection)
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11. Грамм св-ва существительного Noun is the main nominative part of speech. It has the categorial meaning of substance or thingness. The features of the noun within the criteria of discriminataning of parts of speech "meaning - form - function" are, correspondingly, the following: 1) the categorial meaning of substance ("thingness"); 2) the changeable forms of number and case; the specific suffixal forms of derivation (prefixes in English do not discriminate parts of speech as such); 3) the substantive functions in the sentence (subject, object, substantival predicative); prepositional connections; modification by an adjective. Subsets of nouns (semantic classification) -//- according to types of nomination nouns can be common or proper -//- form of existance – animate - inanimate -//- personal quality –human -non-human -//- quantative structure –count - uncountable concrete and abstract the noun has a gr.categories of number, case and gender(which is expressed semantically) and artical determination the typical derivation suffixes of nouns age –mariage al –arrival ian – historian ist – artist ance – performance ee – employee ism – modernism ful – spoonful ion – education ness – happiness ment – government common nouns don’t refer to any particular object, but to any object of the same kind. Proper n.give a name to one particular object (a name of an individual, place names) Nouns are usually function as the subject, the predicative, the object, attributes (a race horse) Combinability of nouns is prepositional and “noun + noun” (a race horse) 17. Глаголы неполной номинации и их подклассы Verbs of partial nominative value: | 12. Категория числа The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the N to the singular form of the N. The strong member of this opposition is plural, its productive formal mark being the suffix –(e)s [-z, -s, -iz]. The productive for- mal mark correlates with the absence of the number suffix in the singular form. There’re also non-productive ways of expressing the number opposition: vowel interchange (man-men);the archaic suffix –(e)n, ox-oxen, child-children); the correlation of individual sing and plural suffixes in a limited number of borrowed suffixes (phenomenon – phenomena); the plural form of the N & homonymous with the sing form (sheep, deer) The most general quantitative characteristics of individual words for dividing Ns into count&uncount is connected with the feature ‘number’, since unc nouns are treated as either sing or pl. There 2 subclasses of unc ns: The absolute sing - characteristic of- -the names of abstract NS (peace, love, joy) -the names of the branches of prof activity (physics, economics) -the names of games (billiards, darts, bowls) -the names of mass materials (water, snow) -the names of collective inanimate obj (foliage, fruit, furniture) The absolute plural is characteristic of -the unc.Ns which denote obj consisting of 2 halves (scissors, pants, glasses) -the N expressing some sort of collective meaning, the idea of indefinite plurality (supplies, outskirts, tidings, earrings, police, cattle) -N denoting diseases (measles, creeps, mumps, hysteric) - multitude plural- family, government. My family are good eaters - descriptive Unc plural-sounds, snows, waters, fruits (conserns stylistical marking of nouns) 3)repetition plural – Common count Ns used in repetition groups to emphatically express indefinitely large quantity. The N in repetition groups may be used either in the plural (marked featured form, or in the sing – the unmarked unfeatured form) there were trees and trees. means of partition: Unc –turns into Count
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13. Категория падежа Case from Latin casus-falling, deviation) the morphological category of the N expressed in the forms of N declension and showing the relations of the referent of the N to other objects and phenomena. This category is expressed in E by the opposition of the form in ‘s [z, s, iz] – the possesive or the genetive case to the ufeatured form of the noun – the common case. the traditional term “genitive case” is preferable because not all the meanings of the genitive case are “possessive”. The genitive of plural Ns remains phonetically unexpressed: the few exceptions concern only some of the irregular plurals. The common form is absolutely indefinite from the semantic point of view, whereas the genitive form in its productive uses is restricted to the functions which have a || expression by prepositional constructions. 4 special views should be considered as successive stages in the analysis of the problem of the category of case. 1) the theory of positional cases (Nestfield, Dentschbein, Bryant) the unchangeable forms of the N are differentiated as different cases according to the functional positions occupied by the N in the sent. The E.N.on the analogy of classical Latin grammar would distinguish besides the inflexional genitive case also the non-inflexional, i.e.purely positional cases: nominative (subject to a V) the president arrived. Vocative case (address ) are you coming, my friend?, The durative (indirect object to a V) I gave Ben a penny The accusative (direct object, object to a preposit) the earth is moistened by rain 2)The theory of prepositional cases (G.Curme), combinations of Ns with prepositions in certain object and attributive collocations are treated as morphological case forms. To this belong 1 on all “dative” case (to+N, for+N)& “genitive ” case (of+N).The prepositional cases coexisting with positional cases together with inflexional genitive completing the case system of the E Noun. 3) Limited case theory (H.Sweet, O.Jespersen, Smirnitsky) – a limited inflexional system of 2 cases in E. one of them is morphologically marked (genitive case)and the other one is unmarked. The possessive or genitive form is the strong member of the categorical opposition, the common form is the weak member of the opposition. The opposition is efected in full with animate N, though a restricted use with inanimate Ns is also taken in account. 4) The post-positional theory (Vorontsova) the EN has lost the category of case in the cause of its historical development. All the cases are considered to be extinct (исчезнувший) and the “genitive case” is a combination of a N with a postposition The semantic classification of the genitive case 1)possessive genitive (meaning – posessional relation of the genetive referent to the object denoted by the head-noun) Ex:the manager’s office g of posessoin 2) integral “genitive of integer(целое) (meaning – ‘organic posession’, a broad posesstional relation of a whole to its part) Ex: the hotel’s lobby A subtype of the integer genitive expresses a qualification received by the genitive referent through head-word (Mr.sDobson’s vanity= Mr.Dobson id vain) This subtype of the genitive can be called “the genitive of the received qualification” 3) the genitive agent \ subjective genitive – an activity or some broader processual relation with the referent of the genitive as its subject. The great man’s arrival = the great man arrives 4) a subtype of the agent genitive expresses the author of the referent of the head noun – the genitive author of origin. Beethoven’s sonatas = Beethoven composed (is the author) the sonatas 4)Objective genitive the recipient of the action or process denoted by the head noun i.e. the champion’s sensational defeat = the champion is | defeated 5)Descriptive genitive 6) the genitive of destination – the function of the referent of the head noun i.e. women’s footwear, a women’s college=a college for women, children’s verses=verses for children 6)Genitive of adverbial 7) adverbial factors relating to the referent of the head-N, mostly the time and place of the event. i.e. the evening’s newspaper=newspaper, issued in the evening, Moscow’s walks 8) the genitive of quantity \measure measure or quantity relating to the head – N. the quantitative meaning expressed concerns units of distance, time, weight, measure. i.e. 3 miles’ distance = a distance of 3 miles, an hour’s delay, 2 month’s time, her heart’s desire, everything to her heart’s content idiomatic phrase the children will be here soon – you’d better put that plate out of harm’s way. I’m at my wit’s end with Ben. The group genitive – affixing the inflexion to the final part of an attribute rather than to the head-N itself. – the teacher’s room The genitive with ellipsis – the noun modified by the –s genitive may be omitted if the context makes it clear. – my car is faster than John’s. john’s is a nice car too. At the greengrocer’s (locative meaning) The double genitive – an of-genitive can be combined with –s genitive. The N with the genitive inflection must be personal & definite – an opera of Verdi’s, that boy of Smith’s (meaning of oneness) 14. Проблема категории рода The category of gender – (Latin genus – class\kind) is express by the obligatory correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the 3rd person. The whole set of nouns / \ personal (human) nouns non-personal (non-human) nouns / \ masculine feminine The category of gender is strictly oppositional. It is formed by 2 oppositions. One opposition functions in the whole set of nouns, dividing them into person and non-person nouns. The other opposition functions in the subset of person nouns, dividing them into masculine and feminine. Thus, the first, general opposition can be referred to as the upper opposition in the category of gender, while the second, partial opposition - the lower opposition in this category. As a result of the double oppositional correlation, a specific system of three genders arises: the neuter (i.e. non-person) cr, the masculine , the feminine. The strong member of the upper opposition is the human subclass of nouns,. The weak member of the opposition comprises both inanimate and «mate non-person nouns. Here belong such nouns as tree, society, crowd, lexical expression of gender 1) notional words used as sex indicators: boy-friend, girl-friend, man-producer, woman-producer, washer-man, washer-woman, landlord, landlady, bull-calf, cow-calf, he- | bear, she-bear. 2) suffixal derivation. – master, mistress, actor, actress,, lion, lioness, The female member is morphologically marked: hero-heroine, man-woman. With widower – widow, it is the male that is marked. Common gender Many person Ns in E are capable of expressing both feminine and masculine genders by way of pronominal correlation.: person, parent, friend, cousin, doctor, president, etc Dual gender – can be male or female in reference as required: the president gave (his/her) word. By contrast common gender applies to Ns like baby, infant, child, which through referring to male or female human beings make gender so irrelevant that we can use the neuter pronoun it(s) Political correctness He is sometimes used to refer to a person whose sex isn’t known. Some people don’t like this use because it’s offensive to women, she/he, s/he, or they. Sometimes person is used to combine with Ns to form new Ns which refer to the particular job or duty that someone has. It is often used instead of –man, or –woman to avoid making an unnecessary statement about the sex of the particular person. – spokesperson, chairperson. Traditional pronominal correlation A grammatical personifying transportation – the pronominal relation of the non-person Ns with he or she. Cultural-historical traditions: - she with the names of countries, vehicles, weaker animals, etc - he with the names of stronger animals, the names of phenomena, suggesting crude strength and fierceness. He used to refer to a man, boy or male animal that has already been mentioned.(there is no need to be frightened-he is a very friendly dog. ) 15. Артикль как грамм определитель сущ-го Article is a determining unit of specific naturally accompanying the noun in communicative collocation.The peculiarity of the article is that in the absence of a determiner(this, any, some), the use of the article with the noun is quite obligatory. The articles are divided into definite (the), ind a/an and zero. The article determination of a N is expressed by 2 binary oppositions. The opposition of the higher level contrasts the definite art with the N as the strong member because of its identifying meaning. The indef art/0 – the meaningful absence of the art as the weak member. The opposition of the lower level contrasts 2 types of generalization – relative – the strong member, absolute – the weak member. It is the oppositional description of the English articles that involves the inteipretation of the article non-use as the zero form of the article. The definite article expresses the identification or individualization of the referent of the noun: the use of this article shows that the object denoted is taken in its concrete, individual quality. The indefinite article, is commonly interpreted as referring the object denoted by the noun to a certain class of similar objects; in other words, the indefinite article has a classifying meaning. | As for the various uses of nouns without an article, from the semantic point of view they all should be divided into two types. In the first place, there are uses where the articles are omitted out of stylistical considerations (titles and headlines). Also the article isn’t used in various combinations of fixed type, such as prepositional phrases (on fire, at hand, in debt, etc.) Other cases of absence of article First. The meaningful absence of the article before the countable noun in the singular signifies that the noun is taken in an abstract sense (law) Second. The absence of the article before the uncountable no corresponds to the two kinds of generalization: both relative and absolute (coffee) Third. The absence of the article before the countable noun in the plural, likewise, corresponds to both kinds of generalization (stars, planets) In the situational study of syntax the starting point of the communication is called its "theme", while the central informative part is called its "rheme". Contextual-situational characteristic of the articles In accord with the said situational functions, the typical syntactic position of the noun modified by the definite article is the "thematic" subject, white the typical syntactic position of the noun modified by the indefinite article or by the meaningful absence of the article is the "rhemalic" predicative. Another essential contextual-situational characteristic of the articles is their connection with the two types of attributes to the noun - "limiting", which requires the definite article before the noun and "descriptive" , which requires the indefinite article or the meaningful absence of the article before the N Anaphoric and cataphoric reference a)an anaphoric reference the denotation of a preceding word or group of words. (he bought a radio&a CD but he returned the radio) b)cataphoric reference – the identity of the reference will be established by what follows (I’m trying to find the book that I want to show you) The semantic functions of the art I‘m just going into the apartment directly above yours I’m just going into an apartment near where you live 1)identifying the 2) classifying a/an 3)the numeral a/an=one our neighbours have 2 daughters and a/one son The articles in generic reference - he has dogs, I hear them barking; - dogs are good friends Absolute generalization a)the formula of water (*some) is H2O b) (*some) dogs are mammals Relative generalization a)Alice drank some milk b)some rats got into the raw the articles in generic reference a car | the car | became an increasing necessity of life cars |
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16. Глаголы полной номинации и их подклассы. Verbs of full nominative value:
20---------------------------- - shall/will + inf a) modal (none so deaf as those who won’t hear (unwillingness)) b) non-modal (you’ll feel better after this medicine) - to be going to (a modal phr) a) a future fulfillment of a present intention (I’m going to complain if things don’t improve) b) a future result of a present case (there’s going to be a trouble)
| 18. Валентностные подклассы глаголов The combining power of words in relation to other words in syntactically subordinate positions (the positions of "adjuncts") is called their syntactic "valency". The valency of a word is said to. be "realized" when the word in question is actually combined in an utterance with its corresponding valency partner, i.e. its valency adjunct. If the word is used without its valency adjunct, the valency conditioning the position of this adjunct is said to be "not realized". The obligatory valency is such as must necessarily be realized for the sake of the grammatical completion of the syntactic construction. For instance, the subject and the direct object are obligatory parts of the sentence, and, from the point of view of sentence structure, they are obligatory valency partners of the verb. Consequently, we say that the subjective and the direct objective valencies of the verb are obligatory. E.g.: We saw a house in the distance. The optional valency, as different from the obligatory valency, is such as is not necessarily realized in grammatically complete constructions: this type of valency may or may not be realized depending on the concrete information to be conveyed by the utterance. Most of the adverbial modifiers are optional parts of the sentence, so in terms of valency we say that the adverbial valency of the verb is mostly optional. For instance, the adverbial part in the above sentence may be freely eliminated without causing the remainder of the sentence to be structurally incomplete: We saw a house (In the in the distance) Link-verbs, although their classical representatives are only half-notional, should also be included into the general valency characterization of verbs. This is due to their syntactically essential position in the sentence. The predicative valency of the link-verbs proper is obligatory. Ex:The reporters seemed pleased with the results of the press conference. The obligatory adjuncts of the verb, with the exception of the subject (whose connection with the verb cannot be likened to the other valency partners), may be called its "complements"; the optional adjuncts of the verb, its "supplements". The distinction between the two valency types of adjuncts is highly essential, since not all the objects or predicatives are obligatory, while, conversely, not all the adverbial modifiers are optional.. Namely, the object of addressee, i.e. a person or thing for whom or which the action is performed, may sometimes be optional, as in the following example: We did it for you. The predicative to a notional link-verb is mostly optional, as in the example: The night came dark and stormy. The adverbials of place, time, and manner (quality) may sometimes be obligatory, as in the examples below; Mr, Torrence was staying in the Astoria Hotel. | 19. Личные формы гл. Катег гл лица, числа The verb has the grammatical meaning of action which in a more detailed way is subdivided into:1)action proper,2)state: to fear, to like,3)process: to boil, to heat. In the sentence the finite verb invariably performs the function of the verb-predicate, expressing the processual categorial features of predication, i.e. time, aspect, voice, and mood. The finite forms of the verb express the processual relations of substances and phenomena making up the situation reflected in the sentence. So, the finite verb is directly connected with the structure of the sentence as a whole. The finite verb is immediately related to such sentence-constitutive factors as morphological forms of predication, communication purposes, subjective modality, subject-object relation, gradation of probabilities The categories of person and number are closely connected with each other. Both categories are different in principle from the other categories of the finite verb, as the nature of both of them is purely "reflective" The expression of the category of person is essentially confined to the singular form of the verb in the present tense of the indicative mood and, besides, is very singularly presented in the future tense. As for the past tense, the person is alien to it. In the present tense the expression of the category of person is divided into three peculiar subsystems. The first subsystem includes the modal verbs that have no per sonal inflexions: can, may, So, the category of person is left unexpressed. The second subsystem is made up by the unique verbal lexeme be. the verb be has three different suppletive personal forms, namely: am for the first person singular, is for the third person singular, and are as a feature marking the finite form negatively: neither the first, nor the third person singular. The third subsystem presents just the regular, normal expression of person with the remaining multitude of the English verbs, with each morphemic variety of them. The features distinguishing the future tense from the present-tense person conjugation are, first, that it marks not the third, but the first person in distinction to the remaining two; and second, that it includes in its sphere also the plural. A trace of person distinction is presented in the past tense with the archaic form of the second person singular. The form is used but very occasionally, still it goes with the pronoun thou, being obligatory with it. the more or less distinct morphemic featuring of the category of number can be seen only with the archaic forms of the unique be, both in the present tense and in the past tense. But even with this verb the featuring cannot be called quite explicit, since the opposition of the category consists in the unmarked plural form for all the persons being contrasted against the marked singular form for each separate person
| 20. Категория глагольного времени The philosophical notion of time exposes it as the universal form of the continual change of phenomena. This moment of immediate perception, or "present moment", and the linguistic content of which is the "moment of speech", serves as the demarcation line between the past and the future. the lexical expressions of time are divided into 1) Present oriented (absolute)- a temporal characteristic to an event from the point of view of its orientation in reference to the present moment. Now, today, in our century 2) Non-present oriented(non-absolutive)- doesn’t characterize an event in terms of orientation towards the present. -relative – correlates 2 or more events. After that, before that, some time later -factual-directly states the astronomical time of the event in the year 1066, during the time of WW2 Tense-a grammatical expression of time reference. There are 2 temporal categories. (2oppositions) 1)The category of primary time It provides for the absolute expression of the time of the process in reference to the moment of speech. The linguistic “moment of speech” is the moment, which is continually shifting in time and serves as the demarcation line between the past and the future. The formal sign of the opposition is with regular verbs, the dental suf –(e)d, [-d, -t, -id] and with irregular verbs, phonemic interchange. The transpositional use of the present tense. -the historic present-refers to the past time and conveys the dramatic immediacy of an event happening at the time of narration. -//- Just as we arrived up comes Ben, slops me on the back as we are life long friends (oppositional reduction) Cases of oppositional reduction in the category of primary time. -with v of communication to suggest that the inf is still valid. (I hear that you need an assistant) -in reference to writers, composers and their works. (Dickens draws his heroes from the London underworld of the time) 2. Prospective time – a non-absolute relative time characteristic /future: shall, will non-future the prosp.time is relative, the future form shows that the process is an after-action to some other action or state, either present or past. (I won’t pay another penny-I said.) the future of the past expresses the strong members of the category of primary time and prospective time. (I said I wouldn’t pay another penny) The oppositional reduction in the category of prospective time Future: present/past / Non-future: present/past -syntactically optional: for plans and arrangements = (the train is leaving\leaves\will leave) - syntactically obligatory in clauses of time and condition (if the blind lead the blind, both shall fall) some means of expressing future time |
21. Категория глагольного вида aspect The aspective meaning of the V as different from its temporal meaning, reflects the inherent mode of the realization of the process irrespective of its timing Aspect: 1)Indefinfite 2)Continious 3)Perfect Aspective categories 1. the category of development + continuous (be…ing) - non-continuous (indefinite) 2. the category of retrospective coordination / \ perfect (have …en) non-perfect (imperfect) The aspective category of development is constituted by the opposition of the continuous forms of the verb to the non-continuous, or indefinite forms of the verb. The marked member of the opposition is the continuous. he categorial meaning of the continuous is "action in progress" The category of retrospective coordination (retrospect) constituted by the opposition of the perfect forms of the verb to the non-perfect, or imperfect forms. The marked member of the opposition is the perfect. The continuous forms - express the character of the process named by the V, disclosing the nature of development of the verbal action. They don’t denote the timing of the process. The perfect forms does reflect a kind of timing, though in a purely relative way. It coordinates two times, locating one of them in retrospect forwards the other. 4)the Indefinite or the Simple aspect. It’s very difficult to characterise the manner of the action in this case because unlike in the 3 aspects above mentioned there is no special auxiliary describing the manner of this action in this case. Some scholars say that the Indefinite aspect has the zero meaning of the aspect because it only indicates the time of an action. For this reason this aspect is called Indefinite & E-sh scholars call this group Simple Tenses which have the meaning of time but no aspect meaning. 3) the Perfect Continuous or Perfect Progressive aspect. It describes the period of duration of an action which is indicated either by an adverbial modifier (for 2 hours, since) or by a temporal clause (since I came here). 22---------------------------- Verbs that are Active in Form but Passive in Meaning Some verbs which are usually followed by an object (to sell, to cut, to wash) can be used without an object and take on a passive meaning. In this, case, the person carrying out the action of the Verb is not referred to | 22. Категория залога voice The verbal category of voice indicates the relation between the participants in a narrated event (subject, object)and the event itself. The passive form as the strong member of the opposistion expresses reception of the action by the subject of the syntactic construction (i.e. the obj of the action) =/= Guttenberg invented the printing press (obj) in 1450 =/= the printing press (the subject) was invented in 1450. The use of the passive 1)the identity of the agent isn’t known. (Many lifeboats were launched from the Titanic only partly filled.) 2) to avoid identifying the agent because we don’t want to assign or accept responsibilities.(a mistake has been made) 3) the identific of the agent is met imp (nowadays sleeping sickness can usually be cured) 4) I scientific and technical writing – to avoid I and WE. The subject was blindfolded, the pencil was placed in the left hand. Verbs which can (not) be passive -V used in Passive =transitive V (can take direct object) =most phrasal and prepositional V which have an obj (we ran over a cat) - V not usually used in Passive =intransitive (smth happened) =some stative V:be, belong, exist, have=(own, seem, suit) – Tom has a guitar The medial voice Sometimes the opposition between 2 forms may be reduced. It means that the verb may be used in the Active Voice form with the meaning of the Passive Voice. Usually we observe it with medial verbs and some authors speak of the medial Voice. The matter is that verbs may be transitive (which require a subject and an object) and intransitive (which do not require an object) because an action of the verb is directed at a subject. Ex. He reads a book. She smiled. Medial verbs do not require any subject but as the English sentence requires that the position of the subject should be filled in, then the object fills in the position of the subject. Ex. The book sells well -reflexive (возвратн) I’ll shove and wash (subj and obj = 1 thing) - reciprocal (взаимн) the friends will be meeting tomorrow. The middle voice An intransitive verb that appears active but expresses a passive action characterizes the middle voice. For example, in The dish cooked in the oven, cooked appears syntactically active but semantically passive, putting it in the middle voice.
| 23. Категория наклонения mood The category of Mood ->expresses the character of connection between the process denoted by the v and actual reality, either presenting the process as a fact, or as an imaginary phenomenon i.e. the subj of a hypothesis, speculation, desire Mood / \ - the direct (прямое) +the oblique (косвенное) / 1)indicative(изъявит) the subjunctive(сослаг) 2)the imperative (повелит) The Ind.M. shows that the speaker represents an action as a real fact. the imperative mood - strong command, prohibition, a friendly advise, polite request. Subjunctive mood 1 (old subj) (consideration, inducement) Meaning – desired or hypocritical action: supposition, speculation, suggestion, insistence, commands Form – the inf stem 3rd person sing s Far be it from me to advise you what to do The employees demanded that he resign !!! it’s necessary that a) simple sentence so be if b) subject clause it’s important that you go there c)object clause the agreement stimulates that the goods pass custom free d)clause of concession - though he be the president, he should hear us Subjunctive mood 2 (unreal condition) -express an unreal condition for the corresponding consequence If it were not for the hope the heart would break forms – did, were, had done I only I were not I wish she were married Subjunctive mood 3(conditional) (unreal cond) Expresses an unreal condition dependent on an unreal condition If my aunt had been a man, she would have been my uncle Forms – would do, would have done Subjunctive mood 4 (modal) Consideration, inducement * should + inf – considerative that he should be generous came at a surprise *may\might + inf – desiderative may the rest of your married life be as happy as the 1st year * let + objective substantive + inf – imperative le t my people go Subjunctive 4 (may, let) May\might + inf – wish, desire, hope May it be as you wish Let + objective substantive + inf – inducement in relation to all persons Let each man decide for himself
| 24. Инфинитив The non-finite verb non-finite verb cannot generally serve as the main verb in an independent clause; rather, it heads a non-finite clause.The mixed features of these forms are revealed in their meaning, structural , marking, combinability and syntactic functions. The infinitive
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25. Герундий 26. Причастие The present participle(I) Active Passive The past participle(II) syntactic functions:attribute,part ot the complex object(have sth done),different adv.modifiers, predicative | 27 Грамм св-ва прилаг The adjective is a part of speech which modifies the noun. Adj don’t possess full nominative value of the substitute It can express qualities,physical and emotional states,origin, opinions, frequency.According to their morphological composition adj. can be simple(great), derived (careful),compound(well-known) place(Italian),time (ancient) Degrees of comparison. Degrees of comp-n can be formed:synthetically(er, est), analitically(more, most) , suppletive way(good-better-best) Substantivized adj-s(=>nouns): Adj can be attribute, predicative 28 Слова категории состояния Among the words signifying properties of a nounal referent there is a lexemic set which claims to be recognized as a separate part of speech. These are words built up by the prefix a- and denoting different states, mostly of temporary duration. Here belong lexemes like afraid, agog, adrift, ablaze. In traditional grammar these words were generally considered under the heading of "predicative adjectives" (some of them also under the heading of adverbs), since their most typical position in the sentence is that of a predicative and they are but occasionally used as pre-positional attributes to nouns.Notional words signifying states were first identified as a separate part of speech in the Russian language by L. V. Shcherba and V. V. Vinogradov. The two scholars called the newly identified part of speech the "category of state" Differences between statives and adj First, the statives are allegedly opposed to adjectives on a purely semantic basis, since adjectives denote "qualities", and statives denote "states". Second, as different from adjectives, statives are characterized by the specific prefix a-. Third, they do not possess the category of the degrees of comparison. Fourth, the combinability of statives is different from that of adjectives in so far as they are not used in the pre-positional attributive function. | Indeed, the main meaning types conveyed by statives are:the psychic state of a person (afraid, ashamed, aware); the physical state of a person (astir, afoot); the physical state of an object (afire, ablaze, aglow); the state of an object in space (askew, awry, aslant). 29 Грамм св-ва наречия Adv are commonly divided into qualitative, (quantative?) and circumstantial. Qualitative: a) of manner (kindly) b) of measure/degree (much, hardly) Curcumstantional: Notional: a) of time and frequency (today) b)of place (outside) Functional: a)interrogative b)connective (join clauses within a compound/complex sentence (yet, still, however) The function of adverbial complement (дополнение), sometimes other functions 30 Грамм св-ва местоимения the Pronoun is a part of speech wich points out things and qualities of things without naming them directly like nouns and adj. Pronouns are not a separate PS, they distribute them between nouns and adj: we, he, smb – noun pronouns; my, some – adj pronouns (Henry Sweet). The categorical meaning of a pronoun is that of indication, while the categorical meaning of nouns is substance and adj – is quality. Pronouns can be characterized by other features, which make them different from nouns: they cannot be used with articles or other determiners; personal, possessive (притяжат.) and reflective (возвратн.) pronouns have personal distinctions while nouns and adj do not have them; personal pronouns have a case system different from that of a noun; in the 3 person singular personal, possessive and reflective pronouns distinguish in gender; relative and interrogative pronouns distinguish between personal and non-personal gender (that – which, who – whom). Thus, the pronoun is the separate PS. | Pronoun is a notional PS. Majority believe that pronouns should be treated as function words: the meaning of the pronoun as a separate class of words is extremely abstract, such as cope of abstraction is typical of function words: like other function word pronouns form a closed system – the number of a pronoun cannot be extended by the creation of additional members. According to their meaning all pronouns are divided into: personal (nominative (I) objective case (me), posessive (Absolute my, Conjoint form – mine), Demonstrstive(it), indefinite (some), reflexive (himself), interrogative, relative, conjunctive, reciprocal (each other) 31 Малые классы слов в системе частей речи parts of speech are deveded into notional (have independent meanings and functions in the sentence) and functional (serve to connect words or sentences, to specify meanings of other words) The article,preposition,conjunctio modal word,interjection Prepositions are nearly always combined with other words in structures called prepositional phrases. The conjunction expresses connections of phenomena. Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join two items of equal syntactic importance. Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions which work together to coordinate two items.Subordinating conjunctions introduce a dependent clause;. The particle unites the functional words of specifying and limiting meaning. The modal word,occupying in the sentence a more pronounced or less pronounced detached position, expresses the attitude of the speaker to the reflected situation and its parts.Here belong the functional words of probability (probably,perhaps),of qualitative evaluation(fortunately),of affirmation and negation. The interjection,occupying a detached position in the sentence,is a signal of emotions. An interjection is a part of speech that usually has no grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence and simply expresses emotion on the part of the speaker,
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