Основная задача
лингвистического анализа – выявление
общей художественной идеи текста,
то есть того обобщающего эмоционального
смысла, который лежит в основе
произведения и доминантой которого
является авторская точка зрения
по отношению к описываемой действительности.
В процессе анализа рассматриваются разные
уровни текста: лексический (изучение
тематических полей слов и особенностей
отдельного слова), синтаксический (принцип
сочетания слов, предложений, особенности
структуры сложного синтаксического целого),
композиционно синтаксический (определение
типа повествования, взаимодействия речевых
структур, пространственно-временная
и субъективная организация текста абзаца).
Кроме того, особое внимание уделяется
выявлению имплицитных «элементов» текста.
Порядок рассмотрения названных уровней
свободен и задаётся спецификой конкретного
произведения. Важно иметь в виду, что
объектом анализа является художественный
текст, а не художественное произведение
«Текст – один из компонентов художественного
произведения, конечно, крайне существенный
компонент, без которого существование
художественного произведения невозможно»
[Лотман, 1972: 24].
Лингвистический
анализ художественного текста очень
важен, перед читателем ставится
узкая задача внимательного прочтения
извлечения максимальной художественной
информации из самого текста. Характеристика
литературной, общественной жизни эпохи,
изучение биографии автора и обстоятельность
создания данного произведения, безусловно,
расширяет представление читателя о конкретном
тексте, однако, это задача литературоведческого
анализа [Гореликова, Магомедова, 1983: 7].
Существует такое понятие как интерпретация
текста. В большей или меньшей степени,
интерпретирование текста обязательно
имеет место и при литературоведческом,
и при лингвостилистическом анализе произведения,
ибо художественное творчество не есть
просто ещё один способ самовыражения,
оно составляет важную, естественную и
необходимую сторону коммуникативной
деятельности человека.
Художественный
текст сложен и многослоен. Задача
его интерпретации – извлечь максимум
заложенных в него мыслей и чувств художника.
Замысел художника воплощён в произведении
и только из него может быть реконструирован.
Интерпретация
текста, таким образом, - это освоение
идейно-эстетической, смысловой и
эмоциональной информации художественного
произведения, осуществляемое путём воссоздания
авторского видения и познания действительности
[Кухаренко, 1979: 8].
Понятие текст
традиционно связывается и с
другим основным понятием стилистики
– стилем, независимо от трактовки
последнего тем или иным направлением
лингвистики. При понимании текста как
общесемиотической категории текст и
стиль соотносятся прежде всего как характеристики
речевой деятельности. Если стиль – это
значимое свойство человеческой деятельности
в целом, и речевой деятельности в частности,
то текст – самая крупная коммуникативная
единица письменного типа речи – выступает
одновременно как «оттиск» процесса речевой
деятельности, как её результат, или продукт,
и как «инструмент», используемый в процессе
речевой деятельности – основное средство
достижения некой прагматической цели.
Лингвостилистический
анализ может проводиться на разных
уровнях языка: фонологическом, морфологическом,
лексическом, синтаксическом. Основной
единицей фонологического уровня является
фонема, главная функция которой – различение
значимых единиц языка. В отличие от единиц
других уровней языка, фонемы обладают
только планом выражения, то есть не являются
двусторонним знаком, и поэтому все фонемы
имеют одинаковую функцию и играют одинаковую
роль в организации звуковой стороны высказывания.
В связи с этим, ни одна фонема не может
быть стилистически маркированной по
отношению к другой, и, как следствие этого,
на фонологическом уровне отсутствуют
выразительные средства.
Interpretation of a Text_
- Speak of the author
in brief.
- the facts of his/her
biography relevant for his/her creative activities
- the epoch (social
and historical background)
- the literary trend
he/she belongs to
- the main literary
pieces (works)
- Give a summary of
the extract (story) under consideration (the gist, the content of the
story in a nutshell).
- State the problem
raised (tackled) by the author.
- Formulate the main
idea conveyed by the author (the main line of the thought, the author's
message).
- Give a general definition
of the text under study.
- a 3rd person narrative
- a 1st person narrative
- narration interlaced
with descriptive passages and dialogues of the personages
- narration broken
by digressions (philosophical, psychological, lyrical, etc.)
- an account of events
interwoven with a humorous (ironical, satirical) portrayal of society,
or the personage, etc.
- Define the prevailing
mood (tone, slant) of the extract. It may be lyrical, dramatic, tragic,
optimistic / pessimistic, melodramatic, sentimental, unemotional / emotional,
pathetic, dry and matter-of-fact, gloomy, bitter, sarcastic, cheerful,
etc.
- The composition
of the story. Divide the text logically into complete parts and entitle
them.If possible choose the key-sentence (the topic sentence) in each
part that reveals its essence. The compositional pattern of a complete
story (chapter, episode) may be as follows:
- the exposition (introduction)
- the development
of the plot (an account of events)
- the climax (the
culminating point)
- the denouement (the
outcome of the story)
- Give a detailed
analysis of each logically complete part.
Follow the formula-matter form.
It implies that firstly you should dwell upon the content of the part
and secondly comment upon the language means (Expressional Means and
Stylistic Devices) employed by the author to achieve desired effect,
to render his thoughts and feelings.
Main Notions_
When
discussing stories or extracts there are certain aspects which are supposed
to regard. It's useful to know them and to be able to use them. They
can make it easier for you to talk about novels, stories and other literary
work.
If
you deal with an extract, begin your discussion with same a few words
about its origin, naming the writer and the title of the story or the
novel it's taken from.
Plot
refers to the sequence of events or actions in a story.
Conflict
is at the heart of the plot. It's the up position of the characters
or groups of characters to each other or something.
Plot
plus conflict comprise Theme. The theme of the story is its central
idea or message.
Tone
of a story shouldn't be forgotten while speaking on characters or objects.
Tone shows the author's attitude and helps us to understand if the writer
takes it seriously, ironically, comically, bitterly, humorously or otherwise.
Mood
is the dominant impression the story makes on you. It can be gloom,
sad, optimistic, pathetic, cheerful, melancholic and so on. Mood like
tone may be revealed through the choice of words, figures of speech,
dialogues, short or long sentences and even phonetic devices.
How
to Analyze a Text_
Знакомство
с лучшими образцами английской
поэзии и прозы, умение вдумчиво читать
и понимать художественную литературу
в единстве содержания и формы
способствуют всестороннему целостному
развитию личности, становлению духовного
мира человека, созданию условий для формирования
у него внутренней потребности в непрерывном
совершенствовании, в реализации своих
творческих возможностей.
В
связи с этим нужно уделять
большое внимание выработке глубокого
понимания художественного произведения
и привитию навыков его самостоятельного
анализа.
На
первом этапе оно представляет собой
организацию беседы по вопросам, направленным
на элементарное толкование контекста:
- Who is the story
about?
- What do we know
about the main character?
- Do you like him
(her) or not? Why?
- Which character
do you like more? Why?
- What pictures can
you imagine while reading the story? What helps you to see them?
- Do you like the
story? Why? Etc.
Позже аналитическая
беседа строится на двух уровнях:
- уровне значения
(умения выделять в тексте основную мысль,
деталь, иллюстрирующую основную мысль,
факты, относящиеся к определенном теме,
обобщать изложенные факты, устанавливать
связи между событиями)
- и уровне
смысла (умения вывести суждение на основе
фактов, сделать вывод, оценить изложенные
факты, понять подтекст, идею текста, найти
художественные средства выразительности
и определить их роль, место в повествовании).
Предварительная
беседа является стержнем для основного
вида деятельности на этом этапе - пересказа
с элементами анализа.
Вот
простенькая схема пересказа, которая
используется как основа, и постепенно
варьируется и усложняется.
A
Plan for Retelling:
- Information about
the author and the book from which the passage is taken. Examples:
- I would like to
tell you a story ... written by ... . He/she was a well-known for ...
. The book is about ... who ... .
- The story I would
like to speak about is written by ... . We know that the author ...
. The book is devoted to ... .
- We've read a very
unusual (thrilling, exaggerated, exciting, etc.) story by ... . It touches
upon (deals with) the problem of ... .
- General characteristics
of the text (its slant, type of narration, etc.).
- Introduction of
the main character (appearance, characteristic features, the way he/she
is presented in the text) and opening events.
- Description of events
as they appear in the extract. Pay attention to:
- the variety of expressive
means, e.g.:
- a) the narration
begins with ...;
- b) draw(s) the reader's
attention to ...;
- c) ... making the
reader believe...;
- d) serve(s) to stress
...;
- e) prepare(s) the
ground for ...;
- f) the emotional
state of the character is revealed...;
- g) the author's
presentation of ...; etc.;
- the use of stylistic
devices, e. g.:
- a) epithets;
- b) similes;
- c) metaphors;
- d) personifications;
- e) repetitions;
- their role in the
narration (to create the atmosphere of ...;
- to convey the feelings
and emotion of ...;
- to give an explanation
...;
- to express the idea
...;
- to underline ...;
etc.).
- The main idea of
the story.
- Your attitude towards
the things described.
Из
журнала "Иностранные
языки в школе"
Phrases for Translating
Ideas into Words_
- The story / article
deals with / is concerned with / describes / examines / reveals / exposes
/ dwells on / explains / addresses / discusses / presents / covers /
outlines / states / offers / considers / looks into / treats
- The story is set
in ...
- The scene is laid
in ...
- The story is written
in a form of... (the author's recollections, the dialogue, narration,
autobiography)
- The action takes
place in ...
- As the story unfolds,
...
- The plot of the
story centres round ...
- The basic plot of
the story develops slowly towards a violently dramatic incident and
an ironical conclusion.
- The plot of the
story is complicated (intricate, tangled up, trite, commonplace, simple).
- The plot of the
story baffles the reader.
- The gist/core of
the problem raised in the story is ...
- The subject taken
up in the story/article is ...
- The issues/problems
of... are the concern of this article.
- This problem is
the subject of the article.
- The problems addressed
in the article are acute / urgent / vital / burning.
- The main idea/message
of the story is ...
- ... is the main
thread of the story.
- The idea is conveyed
through the presentation of ... (the dialogue of...)
- The moral of the
story is ...
- The central conflict
of the story is ...
- With the beginning
of Chapter ..., the novel gains momentum and the mood changes.
- The story has a
deep emotional/intellectual appeal.
- The content is an
objective/subjective reflection of reality.
- The story deals
with the burning problems of life: politics, economics, education, marriage..
- The story is a broad
reflector of the aims, confusions, concerns, ideas, and attitudes of
...
- This story is intended
to provoke thought.
- This story gives
food for thought.
- This story is realistic
in style, cordial in comedy, sympathetic in mood.
- The story is full
of problems, but they emerge as part of life which is so energetically,
vividly, frankly offered for our inspection.
- The story provokes
contradictory assessments.
- The story is marked
with pessimism/optimism.
- The story is characterized
by gripping narrative and deep emotional impact.
- The story is permeated
with irony/lofty ideas/strong feelings.
- The story is a remarkable
insight into human character.
- The story is an
in-depth study of human nature.
- The story reveals
human virtues and vices.
- This story reflects
the author's preoccupation with the moral self.
- The story shows
the author's concern with the moral principles.
- The story has a(n)interesting
/ entertaining / exciting / gripping / amusing / enjoyable / funny /
witty / banal / skillfully developed / slow-moving / fast-moving plot.
- The charm of the
story lies in a realistic portrayal of the characters and a truthful
description of...
- This story is a
delight to read, even though it is made of material which is so disgusting
and depressing.
- Whatever is sick,
sad and ugly in modern urban life is depicted in the story; its rare
moments of beauty too.
- The author reveals
the nature of his characters through (actions, details, dialogues, etc.)...
- The author gives
an account of...
- The author conveys
his emotions to the reader using ...
- The author brings
to the reader's notice ...
- The author gives
a comprehensive and vivid picture of...
- The author remains
concentrated on these problems throughout the story.
- In this story the
author voices dissatisfaction with ...
- The author shows
(presents) complex / complicated / simple / imaginary / realistic /
(un)convincing / superficial / flat / round / well(badly) portrayed
characters.
- The author seems
to be the spokesman of the spirit of time.
- The author's aim
is to concentrate the reader's attention on the inner world of his characters.
- The author displays
a mastery in rendering the subtleties and contradictions of life.
- The author is focused
on human feelings and relationships, actions and motives.
- The author explores
the complexity of human character/ smb's inner motives.
- There is one trait
always present in this author's books, which singles him out of commonplace
writers.
- The author unfolds
a theme in which stupidity, hypocrisy and ambition play their sorry
parts.
- The author's attention
is focused on ...
- The author portrays
/depicts a man in close cooperation with society.
- In his story the
author turns to the conflicts of contemporary life.
- The reader can easily
understand the author's own attitude towards his characters.
- The reader grasps
the idea that ...
- ... serves to convey
to the reader the mood of the narrator / author.
- It is ... that falls
under the author's observation.
- The author's strong
point lies in a vivid description of the beliefs, customs, manners,
costumes, language of the epoch plus the energy and movement which his
story displays.
- The author's sympathy
lies with ...
- The author's real
central figure seems to be ...
- The author's irony
exposes the vices of this society: hypocrisy, money-worship, and moral
degradation. That is why one can hardly find any positive character
in the novel.
- The author is known
for a deep psychological analysis of his heroes and a very thoughtful
attitude to the burning political and social problems of the day.
- The author starts
a new tradition of bringing the language of literature (in the author's
speech, no less than in that of the personages) close to the language
of real life. He does away with the elaborate syntax of the 19th century
prose and cultivates somewhat abrupt sentences, true to the rhythm and
the intonation of the spoken language and full of low colloquialisms
and even slang.
- The author's method
of developing a story often involves a turn which takes the audience
half by surprise, as it may have taken the dramatist himself.
- There is not a character
in the story that is not worth studying, nor a scene that is not life-like,
not a reflection that has not a deep meaning.
- The character of
the heroine is drawn with admirable skill. She is full-blooded and many-sided:
adventurous, gifted, with a keen sense of humour and deep understanding
of people.
- He is the only character
worthy of the author's positive estimate.
- His life is characteristic
of/typical of/peculiar to...
- She is an embodiment
of beauty.
- Money becomes the
prime object of their worship and respect.
- This character enjoys
all the sympathy of the reader.
- Though possessing
some social problems, this story seems to have an air of being away
from reality.
- The story reveals
the author's great knowledge of man's inner world. He penetrates into
the subtlest windings of the human heart.
- The author's style
is remarkable for its powerful sweep, brilliant illustrations and deep
psychological analysis. Everything he touches seems to reflect the feelings
of the heroes, and his power in depicting their passions - hate, fear,
revenge, remorse, love - is enormous.
- Giving the author
his due for brilliance of style and a pointed ridicule of many social
vices, such as snobbishness, money-worship, pretence, self-interest,
etc., we realize, however, his cynical attitude to mankind. It is quite
obvious that when describing the corruption of modern society, he is
not indignant but rather amused. His habitual attitude is that of expecting
little or nothing of his fellow men. His ironical cynicism combined
with a keen wit and power of observation affords him effective means
of portraying reality without shrinking before its seamy side.
- The author shares
in his characters' attitude towards ...
- ... is given by
the author with great force and skill.
- Galsworthy's realism
lies in his capacity for making his hero part and parcel of his surroundings
and convincing the reader of his typicality: he is a fine artist in
reproducing the individual workings of his characters' mind.
- The foundation of
Galsworthy's talent lies in a remarkable power of ironic insight combined
with an extremely keen and faithful eye for all the phenomena on the
surface of the life he observes.
- The appeal of Jerome
lies in his gentleness and irony, in his power of digression, his gift
of capping his comic moments with a final extravagant act that outbids
life altogether.
- The atmosphere of
gayety characteristic of the beginning is changed by sad humour towards
the end.
- The charm of this
story lies in its interesting plot and exciting situation. At the same
time it conveys deep thought, keen observation and sharpness of characterization.
These very qualities assure the author of an outstanding place in the
annals of literature and in the hearts of all who love good stories.
- Many of the events,
reactions and descriptions in the story are seen through the main character's
eyes.
- This description
provides an essential clue to the character.
- ... leads to comical
effect.
- ... intensifies
the total effect.
- ... brings out the
character's essential nature.
- ... adds much to
the revelation of...
- ... stands in contrast
to ...
- The compositional
arrangement of the text (stylistic devices) help to bring the idea out
(to create tense atmosphere, to show the real state of things).
- The author resorts
to high-flown phrases/expressions to show ...
- The enumeration
shows the author's striving for an exhaustive and fully detailed presentation
of the phenomenon dealt with.
- The choice of vocabulary
and stylistic devices is admirable.
- The following stylistic
devices contribute to the expressiveness of the passage.
- The author makes
extensive use of ... to render the story more vivid, convincing, more
real and emotional.
- All the descriptive
attributes used in the passage serve to convey to the reader ...
- An additional humorous
effect is produced by ...
- The description
of ...is contrasted to that of...
Features
of Narrative Prose_
Novels
and short stories can use language in such a wide variety of ways that
it is difficult to be specific about linguistic and stylistic features.
There are, however, certain features that are worth looking out for.
Manner
The
manner can be formal or informal, depending upon the relationship the
author wants to create with the reader. Often the modern novel will
try to re-create the language of everyday, particularly in first person
narratives (stories told from the point of view of one individual, using
the first person singular pronoun I). Older novels tend to be more formal
in their address to the reader. It is also important to decide what
the author's attitude to characters and events is: irony, for instance,
allows the author to write in a contradictory way - what is actually
meant is contrary to what the words on the page appear to say. An author
may use irony to show the difference between how things are and how
they might be; to mock certain characters; to highlight a discrepancy
between how characters see a situation and its true nature; or to emphasise
that a reader knows more than the characters themselves.
Point
of View
The
point of view is central to narrative prose because the reader needs
to know who is telling the story. In a first person narrative, the I
narrator relates the events she or he experiences. This allows the reader
a direct insight into the character's mind. Often the experiences are
viewed retrospectively so that there is a difference between the character's
mature and immature personalities (for instance, Jane Eyre by Charlotte
Bronte; Great Expectations by Charles Dickens; A Clockwork Orange by
Anthony Burgess). The choice of a first person narrator produces a personal
relationship which tends to encourage the reader to empathise with the
main character. Because this approach gives only one person's view of
the story, however, it can biased, showing a limited understanding of
the events and other characters.
In
a third person narrative the narrator is often omniscient - all-seeing
and all-knowing. Such narrators tend to give an overview of the story.
Because there is no I, the narration is presented to the reader directly
without an intermediary. There are two kinds of omniscient narrator:
the unintrusive and the intrusive. The unintrusive narrator allows the
author to tell the story from a distance, without the reader being aware
of a persona telling the story or making judgements. The action is presented
without many explicit comments or judgements. Writers like Graham Green
and E. M. Forster are known for their invisible narrators. The intrusive
narrator, on the other hand, explicitly comments on events and characters,
often pointing to the significance of what they are presenting and providing
a moral interpretation. Authors like Jane Austin and George Eliot intervene
in their novels, explicitly guiding and influencing the reader's judgements.
Normally,
third person narrators relate events and make descriptions using the
declarative mood.The interrogative or imperative moods can be used to
make direct addresses to the reader, inviting judgements or opinions
on events and characters. Such addresses will often be marked by a change
from simple past tense to simple present. Novelists are interested in
more than just events. The thoughts and opinions of characters are central
to the creation of a fictional world. In the nineteenth century, many
novelists used interior monologues to build up the thought patterns
of their characters. Although supposedly reflecting a character's thoughts,
the author would order and pattern these so that they were fluent and
logical. In the twentieth century, writers like James Joyce and Virginia
Woolf were some of the first to experiment with stream of consciousness
writing, in which thought patterns appear on the page randomly. To show
how chaotic and jumbled thoughts often are, writers can manipulate syntax
and layout. This approach attempts to convey on the page the complexity
of the human mind.
Lexis
The
lexis can be simple or complicated, formal or colloquial, descriptive
or evaluative. The choices made depend upon the author's intentions.